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hey guys in this video you're going to

write your first C++ program so sit back

relax and well enjoy the

show hey if you wouldn't mind please

like comment and subscribe one like

equals one prayer for the YouTube

algorithm I'm going to tell you why you

need to learn C++ C++ is a fast language

like really fast it's commonly used in

advanced Graphics applications a few

examples would include a doobe

applications video editing software

anything that's Graphics intensive C++

is considered a middle level language

therefore it's commonly used with

embedded systems and most importantly

it's commonly used with creating video

games I like video games like a lot

compared to other programming languages

you could say that C++ is a middle level

language programming languages tend to

be on a spectrum the higher level of

programming language is the more it

resembles human language

languages that are closer to being lower

level resemble Hardware instructions

higher level languages such as python

Java and CP are very easy to write with

and to understand but they tend to be

slower C++ and C they take a little more

effort to write but they're very fast

they have the benefit of working closely

with machine Hardware while still

somewhat resembling human language just

a fair warning there is a learning curve

with C++ but if you can learn it it's

worth it there's two things you'll need

to get started one is a text editor a

few options include but are not limited

to would be vs code code blocks or even

notepad VSS code and code blocks are

also considered Ides integrated

development environments they are a text

editor as well as a workshop that

contain a lot of useful developer Tools

in this video I'm going to show you how

to download VSS code but feel free to

use any text editor that you're

comfortable with secondly we'll need a

compiler a compiler ER is a piece of

software that will parse source code to

machine instructions and that's really

it if you're using Windows or Linux

you'll probably want to go with GCC if

you're running Mac you'll probably go

with cang okay cang has a really cool

logo it's blue eyes white dragon so

let's get started well all right then

everybody now we are going to download

VSS code that text editor I was talking

about head to this URL code dovisual

studio.com then select the correct

download for your operating system I'm

running Windows I'll select windows then

I will open

this read the agreement yes I actually

did read it that fast I accept the

agreement

next

next next I'll create a desktop icon why

not next and install we might as well

launch it

finish in VSS code there's two

extensions I would recommend go to the

left toolbar under underneath extensions

we will look up

c/c++ and we would like to download this

extension uh let's pretend that this

wasn't already installed so I'm going to

install it then the next extension I

recommend is code

Runner here it is then just click this

blue button to install

it okay let's close out of

this we're going to create a new folder

to hold our C++ projects go to the left

tool bar explore open folder I'll create

a new folder on my

desktop new folder I'll name this

C++ projects that sounds good to me then

select folder within this folder we'll

create a new file I'll name this hello

world. CPP make sure to get that CPP

extension at the end that means it's a

C++ file okay we now have a C++ file to

work with now we just need to download

that compiler that parses source code to

machine

instructions there's a great set of

instructions at this URL code dovisual

studio.com

slocs let's head to C++ there's

different installation instructions

depending on your operating system

you'll be downloading GCC on Linux if

you're running Linux GCC on Windows for

Windows and clling for Mac OS

downloading a compiler for Linux and Mac

is actually really easy I can cover that

in like 30 seconds Windows is a little

more complicated but let's begin with

Linux so all you're going to do is open

up terminal and enter the following

command GCC SLV that will check to see

if it's currently installed if it's not

you enter this command in then you

install the gnu compiler tools by typing

in this Command right here and that's

all you need to do with Linux if you're

on Mac you'll download

clang open Terminal type in this command

if clang isn't installed all you type is

this command and that's it so pretty

easy right if you're using the Windows

operating system there's way more steps

so let's head to step three we'll need

to install

mgww 64 you can click this link to the

installer this is an executable I'll

open this when it's

done click next next next wait for it we

might as well run this then finish now

we will follow the installation

instructions on this

website under step five we will

type

Pacman Das capitals Yu enter

type y then enter to proceed with the

installation type y then enter again to

confirm to proceed now we'll need to

find this program from the start

menu M

cis2 then type this

command pack

man- Su

enter type y then enter to proceed with

the

installation now we'll need to enter

this command

in there's a lot to type

here Pacman

ds-- needed

base

Dash Dev

L min

gw- w64

DX

86 uncore

64- tool chain then

enter then just hit

enter proceed with the installation type

yes type why enter again then give it a

moment then we can close out of this

window we'll have to find the bin folder

of MW W it's likely going to be within

your C drive go to

m64 MW 64 bin then copy this

address we'll need to add that path to

the windows path environment variable to

do so search

settings

settings we'll search edit environment

variables

go to path

edit let's pretend that this wasn't here

I'm going to go to new paste that

address okay okay close out of this

window just to be sure that our compiler

is working and available let's open up

command prompt command

prompt then type in this command G

Plus+ D- version

enter yeah it looks like it's good to go

we have now successfully installed our

compiler all right everybody let's write

our first C++ program at the top of our

C++ file we are going to type

include within angle brackets IO stream

iostream is a header file that contains

functions for basic input put and output

operations by writing include iio stream

we're including that header file then we

have access to a whole bunch of useful

input and output operations now we'll

need a main function the main function

is where the program begins we'll type

int main parenthesis curly braces We

Begin the program by invoking the main

function and read any code within the

main function starting at the top and

working our way down at the end of our

main function we'll want return zero

then add a semicolon if we reach return

zero that means there were no problems

in this program however if one is

returned that means there was a problem

there was an issue so Place return zero

at the end of your main function what

we'll do in this lesson is write some

basic output to write some output you'll

type

STD contrary to what you might believe

in this case it doesn't mean sexually

transmitted diseases it means standard

follow STD with two colons then type c

out c means character Out means output

Al together this means standard

character output we're going to display

some characters as output then follow C

out with two left angle brackets these

characters mean output it's also known

as the left shift operator when used

with numbers what characters would we

like to display as output within

quotation marks let's write something

what's a food you like I like pizza I'll

type that then follow this statement

with a semicolon at the end of

statements we add a semicolon that lets

the compiler know that this statement is

done it's sort of like the period at the

end of a sentence that's when you know

the sentence is complete so I'm going to

save this I'll hold contrl s or you can

go to file save then click this button

to run

it and there's my output I like pizza on

the next line I'll type

STD two colons C out

two left angle brackets for output I'll

write a second

line it's really

good then I'll run this again you can

press this icon to clear your

output uhoh we have a problem I like

pizza it's really good all of this text

is on one line what if you need the next

line of text to be on well the next line

when you need to move your cursor down

to the next line you can follow some

string of text with

left angle brackets for output

STD colon colon e n DL that means end

line and I'll do the same for my second

line I'm going to save clear my output

run this again yeah there we go I like

pizza it's really good each line of text

is on a different line another option

for a new line that's better

performance-wise is to add a new line

character within single quotes type back

sln and let's replace that here as

well so I'm going to save clear my

output run this again I like pizza it's

really good adding a new line character

does the same thing and it's better

performance-wise however the benefit of

using end line is that end line will

flush the output buffer really you can

use either one but I thought that might

be a nice trick to show you now you can

write a comment a comment is ignored by

the compiler

to write a comment you use two forward

slashes this is a comment comments are

used for yourself for notes or for notes

for another developer so if I were to

run this

again this comment is ignored it's not

used as output or anything like that if

you need a multi-line comment you type

slash asterisk wherever you need your

comment to end you'll Place asterisk

forward slash again this

is

a

multi-line

comment and you can see that all of this

is ignored as well so comments are used

as notes for yourself or for other

developers yeah that's a quick

introduction to getting started with C++

I'll post this code in the comment

section down below if you would like a

copy hey if you enjoyed this video

please be sure to smash that like button

leave a random comment down below and

subscribe if you'd like to become a

fellow bro

hey guys I'm going to explain what

variables are a variable you probably

remember from middle school math class a

variable is a representation of some

number or value there are two steps to

creating and using a variable

declaration and assignment we'll begin

with declaration to declare a variable

we need to list the data type of what

we're storing exactly in programming you

can store more than just numbers you can

store characters even whole sentences

Etc let's work with whole numbers to

store a whole number we will type int

for integer then we need a unique

identifier for this variable for now

let's just say x we're used to working

with like X and Y in math class right we

will end the statement with a semicolon

this step is

declaration now to assign a variable you

take the variable's name that unique

identifier then we will set this equal

to some number since we declared this

variable as an INT it will store an

integer maybe like five now this

variable behaves as if it was the value

that it contains it will behave as if it

was the number five then to display a

variable we can use standard output STD

C

out we will display X and let's see what

we

have there's our value five this first

step is declaration the second step is

assignment the nice thing about doing

this in two steps is that you can later

assign your variable a value if you know

what value you would like to give your

variable right away you can do that at

the beginning of your program you could

combine both of those steps int xal 5

and that would do the same thing in

cases where you don't know what value

you would like to give a variable you

could assign it later such as when you

accept user input you don't know what

the user is going to type so let's

create another int y = 6 then let's

display whatever Y is I'll add a new

line let's copy this paste

it okay X is 5 Y is 6 we could even do

something like this let's say int sum =

x + y then we'll display whatever our

sum variable is see out sum the sum of x

+ y is 11 now there's different data

types depending on what you need to

store than a variable exactly the int

data type stores a whole integer let's

think of a few examples of whole

integers what about an

age that's typically a whole number int

age equals 21 let's think of two more

examples what about a year in year

equals

2023 how about days int days equals 7

the int data type can only store a whole

number number with days what if we

assign this a value of 7.5 let me show

you what

happens all right I will display

days all right that decimal portion is

truncated when I display days and we

attempt to assign

7.5 well this variable can't store that

decimal so it's truncated if you need a

number that includes a decimal portion

there 's a different data type for that

and that is a

double this is a number including

decimal a few examples of a double would

be maybe a price there's dollars and

cents

double price equals

$10.99 what about a GPA a grade point

average that includes a decimal double

GPA equals

2.5 uh then maybe a

temperature

double

temperature equals

25.1 I guess this could be an either

Celsius or Fahrenheit then let's display

maybe

price

price yeah and that decimal portion is

not truncated much like like what you

see with whole integers if you need a

number that includes a decimal portion

use a double now we have the Char data

type that stores A Single

Character type Char maybe we're working

with student grades I'll name this

variable

grade equals then to store a single

character you use single quotes this

student has an

a two more examples what about an

initial singular not initials

Char

initial uh what about B so I'm going to

display

initial

initial okay we have our Single

Character of B now check this out what

if I attempt to store more than one

character I'll add C we have a warning

we have an overflow in conversion from

int to char so what's displayed is the

last character just see so chars can

only store A Single Character here's one

more example of a Char data type what if

we're working with currency what type of

currency will we work with

Char

currency

equals maybe a dollar sign if we're

working with a different type of

currency we could change this to a

different symbol yeah that's the Char

data type it stores A Single Character

next on our list is is

Boolean Boolean a variable that's

Boolean has only two states true or

false to create a Boolean variable you

type bull then a variable name so these

are applicable to anything that has two

states what if somebody is a student

they're either a student or not a

student bu student equals true if

they're not enrolled in classes or they

graduated you could set to be false

think of a light switch the light switch

can either be on or off you could say a

light switch is Boolean there's only two

states true or false how about bu power

is something powered on or not power

equals true if it's turned off that

could be false maybe we have a store and

we need to Mark if something is for sale

or not like is it

available bu for sale equals true if an

item in our or isn't for sale like it's

not available we could set this to be

false so that's the idea behind Boolean

values it has two states true or false

the last data type I'll cover is strings

a string is technically an object that

represents a sequence of text think of

it as the Char data type but we can

store more than one character even whole

sentences like a name or an address

strings are provided from the standard

namespace to declare a string we would

type

standard string then a variable name

what about just name like we're storing

a user's name place your text within a

set of double quotes then why don't you

type your first name then we will store

that within this variable name then to

test it let's display

it standard output we will display

name and there is your first name let's

create a couple more examples what about

about a day of the week standard string

day then pick a day I like

Friday what about

food standard string

food I like pizza I'll store this series

of text as a string then maybe an

address standard

string

address equals make up some address 1 2

3 fake Street basically speaking a

string is a type of object that

represents a sequence of text such as a

name a day an address Etc now I'm going

to show you how we can display a

variable along with some text I would

like to display hello then whatever your

name is I will type what is known as a

string literal we're literally printing

a string

hello follow this string of text with a

variable my variable name is good then

let's display

it hello then whatever your first name

is but you do have to pay attention to

spacing after my word hello I'm going to

add a

space there hello bro then let's display

our

age so I'm going to add a new line

character

standard output we will display you

are

age years

old there hello bro you are 21 years old

uh make sure to pay attention to the

spacing as well because it's easy to

mess that up all right so those are

variables we covered a few of the basic

data types but there's more advanced

data types once we gain a little bit

more experience with this that I'll

cover we have integers which store a

whole number doubles which are numbers

that include a decimal portion chars are

single characters booleans are either

true or false then strings represent a

sequence of text an important note with

strings is that you can include numbers

but they're treated differently so yeah

those are variables in C++ your

assignment is to in the comment section

post a integer variable a double a

character Boolean and a string think of

some examples preferably some examples

that I may have not covered already that

would be good practice well yeah and

that's an introduction to variables in

C++ all right welcome back everybody in

this video we're going to discuss the

const keyword the const keyword

specifies that a variable's value is

constant it tells the compiler to

prevent anything from modifying it so

that it's effectively readon here's an

example let's create a program to

calculate the circumference of a circle

we'll first Define the variables that

we'll need we have double Pi Pi =

3.14159 then we have Double Radius pick

some radius I'll pick

10 then double circumference

equals and here's the formula to

calculate the circumference of a circle

it's 2 * pi times

radius then we will display our

circumference standard output we will

display

circumference then I'll add maybe

centimet our circumference

is

62.83 cm

any variable we do not want to be able

to be changed at all we can turn into a

constant let's say that somebody goes

into our program and changes pi to a

different number like

42069 well then this is going to change

the result of our program we may have

not realized that somebody changed the

value of pi to 42069 so any variable you

do not want changed you can prefix this

keyword

const const double Pi now a common

naming convention for constants is to

make all of the letters uppercase so

let's change PI from lowercase to all

uppercase and we'll need to make that

change here as well now let's try and

change pi to 42069 again then see what

happens okay we have an error assignment

of readon variable Pi so by including

constants it adds some data security we

can't normally change any value that's a

constant a couple other examples of

variables that you could turn into

constants could be maybe the speed of

light maybe you have a physics

calculator so

const in light speed the speed of light

in meters per second is 299

792

458 let's think of one more example

perhaps you're working with screen

resolutions we have

const int width of 1920

then const in height of

1080 these may be a few examples uh

variables you do not want to be changed

or altered at all you only want them to

be readon yeah that's a const everybody

it's a keyword that will modify a

variable or some value so that it's

readon and can't be changed you should

use constants as often as possible only

if you know that a variable is not going

to be changed at all your assignment is

to think of a constant and post in the

comment section hey if you're enjoying

the series please be sure to smash that

like button leave a random comment down

below and subscribe if you'd like to

become a fellow

bro hey everyone I have a quick video on

namespaces a namespace provides a

solution for preventing name conflicts

especially in larger projects each

entity needs a unique name a name space

allows for identically named entities as

long as the name spaces are different

now what the heck does that mean

suppose we have variable x x equal 0

each variable needs a unique name I

couldn't create a second variable named

X and give this a different value if I

were to compile and run this program we

would run into an error red Declaration

of int X so each entity needs unique

name but if we use namespaces then two

or more entities can share the same name

to create a namespace let's do so

outside of the main function I will type

namespace then some name for the

namespace let's say first then a set of

parentheses I could create a different

version of X I'll give this a different

value like one well this would run and

compile just fine you can have different

versions of the same variable as long as

they're within a different namespace

just for fun let's create a second

namespace namespace second x = 2 this is

also valid so just to demate a few

things I'm going to display what x is if

I don't explicitly State what namespace

we're using we will use the local

version of an

entity if I display x x would be zero if

I would like the version of X that is

found within the first namespace I would

take that entity in this case X prefix

the namespace let's say first then two

colons the two colons is known as the

scope resolution oper Ator I'm referring

to the version of X that is found within

the first namespace and that version of

X has a value of one if I need the value

of x found within the second namespace I

would precede that entity with the

second namespace followed by the scope

resolution operator so that version of X

is two so entities can have the same

name as long as they're within a

different name space now one line that

you may see is use using namespace then

the name of a namespace let's say first

if we have some entity without a prefix

of the namespace it's assumed that we're

using the entity found within that

particular

namespace so if I was to display X while

we're using namespace

first X would be one and I don't need to

add that prefix but if I need X found

within the second namespace I would

still need to prefix it with second

X is 2 if I changed using namespace to

Second it's implied we're using the

second namespace and I don't need that

prefix two but I still would if I need X

from the first name

space one now there's this evil line

called using namespace STD for standard

now the reason that people include this

line is to save a little bit of typing

if we're using namespace STD we don't

need to include that prefix when we

declare strings or we display output

with C out just for example like this

would still compile and run however the

standard namespace has hundreds of

different entities let me show you

standard there's a high likelihood of a

naming Conflict for example we have an

entity named data one alternative is

that we could say

using standard output that will cut down

on some some of the repetitions or using

standard

string it's a safer alternative to using

namespace

standard in the future I'm not going to

be using namespace standard because I

would like to steer people away from

that but just in case you see that line

you know what it's there for so in

conclusion a namespace provides a

solution for preventing name conflicts

each entity needs a unique name and

namespace allows for identically named

entities as long as the namespaces are

different so those are namespaces hey if

you're enjoying this series let me know

by Smashing that like button leave a

random comment down below and subscribe

if you'd like to become a fellow

bro hey everyone in this topic I'm going

to explain type defs and type aliases

now type def is a reserved keyword used

to create an additional name for another

data type kind of like a nickname it's a

new identifier for an existing type one

of the reasons that people use type def

is that it helps with readability and

reduces typos here's an example in this

example I'll need to include this header

file

include Vector suppose we have this very

long data type and I would like to give

it a nickname an

alias I would type the keyword type def

then list the original data type so

we're used to Strings ins doubles well

here's a really complicated one one and

of course I don't expect anybody to know

this at this level yet

standard

Vector

standard

pair standard string int so this is one

really long data type this could be a

data type for a pair list but I don't

want to have to type all of this so what

I could do is give this data type an

alias using this type Dev keyword after

the original data type I'll come up with

a new name a new identifier let's say

pair list that's a lot easier to write

than all of this for the data type a

common convention when using the type

def keyword the new identifier usually

ends with underscore t for type now

suppose I declare a variable of this

data

type standard Vector standard pair

standard string int let's say the name

is pair list in place of using the

original data type we can use the new

identifier pair listor T so that's one

of the main benefits of using the type

def keyword we can give a new identifier

to an existing data type it helps with

code readability and helps reduce typos

this data type is way beyond our level

of understanding right now let's try

some simple examples I'll turn this line

into a

comment then get rid of that let's

create a type def for standard strings

type def then we list the original data

type standard string in place of using

standard string as the data type I'll

create a new identifier for this data

type as maybe just text textor T if I

need to create a string I could use this

new identifier in place of saying

standard string then maybe first

name I can replace the data type with

the new identifier if I choose to text T

and I'll set my first name equal to

whatever my first name is feel free to

set it to your own first name and this

variable behaves exactly like a string

so let's display it standard

output first

name and then we should have our first

name yeah there we are okay now let's

try this with an

integer type da we list the old data

type int let's create an identifier for

INT as number that's more descriptive

underscore T although it's more to write

technically in place of using the int

data type I could use number T and this

is technically an integer uh let's say

age then make up some

age standard output I will display my

age then I will add a new line

yep we have our first name and our age

now type def has largely been replaced

with the using keyword that's because

the using keyword works better with

templates which is a topic for another

video so in place of using type def I

recommend using the using

keyword so I'm going to turn these lines

into

comments now if we were to use the using

keyword we would type using

then the new data type so let's say text

T equals the old data type standard

string then let's do that with number

using the new identifier number T equals

int and that would work the

same we have our first name and our age

the using keyword is more popular than

typed def nowadays just because it's

more suit for templates and like I said

that's a topic for another video all

right everybody that is the typ def

keyword and type aliases typed def along

with the using keyword they're used to

create an additional name an alias or

nickname for another data type it's a

new identifier for an existing data type

it helps with readability and it reduces

typos however you should really only be

using the typ def and using keywords

when there is a clear benefit so yeah

that is typ defs and type aliases your

assignment is to post a type def in the

comment section down below and well yeah

those are type defs and type aliases in

C++ all right everybody welcome we are

going to discuss arithmetic operators

arithmetic operators return the result

of a specific arithmetic operation such

as addition subtraction multiplication

and division let's say we have 20

students int students equals 20 if a new

student joins our class we would like to

add one student well if we're working

with the variable we could say students

equals whatever students is+ one then we

could display this standard output I

will display students the current number

of students that we have are 21 there is

a shorthand way of writing this too in

place of saying students equals students

+ 1 we could shorten this to students

plus equals 1 that would would do the

same

thing 21 if we need to add two students

this would be students equals students

plus two or students plus equals 2 then

we have 22 students if you need to add

one to a variable you could also use the

increment operator this is another

option and the preferred way if you only

need to add one you would say students

Plus+ we now have 21 students you tend

to to see this in a lot of Loops which

we'll cover later okay now we have

subtraction students equals students -

one there are now 19 students we could

shorten this

to students minus equals

1 there are 19 students if you need to

subtract two we could say either

students equals students minus 2 or

students minus equals 2 that would do

the same thing there there are 18

students another option is the decrement

operator if you need to decrement a

variable by one you would say students

minus

minus this only subtracts one from a

variable there are 19 students so that

subtraction to use multiplication you

use an asterisk I'm going to double the

amount of students that we

have students equals students *

2 there are 40 students or we can

shorten this to students times equals 2

and again there are 40 students for

division you use a forward

slash I'm going to divide our class in

half students equals students divided

two there are 10 students the shorthand

way is students / equals

2 there are 10 students now check this

out we have 20 students what if I divide

students by

three we're working with an in variable

so this variable can't hold any decimal

portion 20 / 3 that is 6 so any decimal

portion is lost it's truncated but if we

change students to be a double well then

that decimal portion is retained 6.66

repeating students if you need the

remainder of any division you can use

the modulus operator let's create a new

variable int remainder equals students

modulus 2 we'll divide our group of 20

students into groups of two then I'll

display the remainder okay 20 divides by

two evenly so there's no remainder but

what if we divide students by three and

get the remainder our class of students

is being divided into groups of three

for maybe like a project but 20 doesn't

divide by three evenly therefore our

remainder is two there will be six group

groups of three students and one group

of two students Now using the modulus

operator is a great way to find out if a

number is even or odd take some value or

variable you would like to check modulus

2 if that number divides by two evenly

where the remainder is zero well it's

even if the remainder is one well then

it's an odd number 21 doesn't divide by

two evenly so that is the modulus

operator it gives you the remainder of

any division these arithmetic operators

have an order of Precedence we resolve

any arithmetic op operations that are

first within parentheses then

multiplication and division then lastly

addition and subtraction perhaps we have

this

formula students

equals

6 - 5 + 4 * 3 / 2 so what do we solve

first in this equation we would check

any parentheses first which there aren't

any of then we resolve any

multiplication and division so let's go

through this so we have some

multiplication here we would resolve 4 *

3 first that is 12 then we have some

division 12 / 2 is 6 then any addition

and

subtraction 6 - 5 is 1 1 + 6 is

seven and let's check to see if that's

right so students should be seven yep

students is seven now you can force

operator precedence by surrounding some

part of your equation with parentheses

I'll surround this part of the equation

with the set of parentheses the new

result is -7 well yeah everybody those

are some basic arithmetic operators they

return the result of a specific

arithmetic operation hey if you would

like a copy of this code I'll post this

in the comment section down below and

pin it to the top and well yeah those

are some basic arithmetic operators in

C++ hey what's going on everybody in

this video I'm going to explain very

basic type conversion type conversion is

the conversion of a value of one data

type to another two ways in which we can

do this are implicit and explicit

implicit is done automatically if done

explicitly we proceed a value with the

new data type within a set of

parentheses you list the new data type

put it before a variable or a value

let's perform an implicit cast suppose

we have variable int X I will assign X

the value

3.14 integers can only hold a whole

number if I were to display X standard

I'll put

X well the value is three we truncated

the decimal portion and implicitly

converted this number into an integer

what if x was of the double data type

double x =

3.14 well then we would retain that

decimal portion what would happen if I

cast 3.14 as an integer then assigned it

to a

variable before the value add a set of

parentheses then the new data type I

will convert 3.14 to an integer then

store it within this double x x now

equals 3 it's a whole integer that is

one example of implicit and explicit

type conversion here's a few other

examples I have character

x equals some number like 100 if I were

to display what x was standard output

put X well we will implicitly cast this

number 100 as a character we'll convert

it using the asky table to whatever its

equivalent is the number 100 converted

to a

character is the letter

D let's try an explicit

cast I will display the number 100

explicitly cast to a

character and that value is the letter d

as output

how is this useful suppose we have an

online exam we have to give the user a

score how many questions did they get

right divided by how many questions were

total let's write something like this

int correct equals maybe 8 the user has

eight questions that are right int

questions equals 10 there are 10 total

questions I need to calculate the score

as a percentage we could say double

score equals

correct divided questions time 100 then

let's display whatever the result is

standard

output

score then I'll add a percent sign to

the

end 8 / 10 is8 right time 100 that

should give us

80% uh we have 0% well that's because

we're using integer division questions

is of the data type when we're dividing

8 by 10 we're truncating that decimal

portion we're getting rid of it then

multiplying whatever Remains by 100 I'm

going to explicitly cast questions as a

double of the double data type and we

should retain that decimal

portion yeah there we go 80% where

you'll use type conversion it really

varies but you should be aware that you

can do it such as when using integer

division so yeah that's type conversion

in C++ hey if you're enjoying this

series let me know by Smashing that like

button leave a random comment down below

and subscribe if you'd like to become a

fellow

bro all right let's get started

everybody in this video I'm going to

show you how we can accept some user

input in C++ we're familiar with C out

followed by the insertion operator which

is two left angle brackets while to

accept some input we would type c in for

character input followed by the

extraction operator which is two right

angle brackets here's a demonstration

let's ask a user for their name I'll

create a string variable standard string

the name will be well name then I'll

create a prompt which will ask the user

what their name is standard output

insertion

operator what's your

name then to accept some user input we

would type standard CN for character

input

extraction operator then where would we

like to store the user input let's store

it within our variable name at the end

of our program let's display what the

user's name is standard

output insertion

operator

hello name okay we're going to have one

problem though if we're using vs code as

our text editor we need to begin using

the terminal tab previously we've been

using output so I can't actually type in

anything to this cuz it's well output if

you're using vs code this is what we'll

need to do if you're not you can skip

the step we're going to go to file

preferences settings look up code

Runner then we are looking for run in

terminal which is right about here check

that close this tab let's stop this from

running and we'll run it again okay here

we go what's your name I'll type in my

first name hit enter

hello bro or whatever your first name

was this time let's ask a user for what

their age is I'll store this within a

variable named age int

age standard

output what's your

age standard

input extraction operator

age standard out output insertion

operator you

are

age years

old and I think we'll need some new line

characters right about here just

one okay this should work let's try

it what's your name I'll type in my

first name hit enter what's your age

I'll make up an age I like to think that

I'm 21 still hit enter hello bro you are

21 years old so that's how to accept

some user input you can use CN for

character input uh but there's just one

problem though if you type in a string

that has spaces well once we hit a space

we stop reading that string this time

let's ask a user to type in their full

name okay type in your first name and

your last

name hit enter what's your full name bro

code what's your age hello bro you are

Zer years old if we need to read a

stream

that could contain spaces there's a

function that we can use to help us with

that that is the get line

function standard get line add a set of

parentheses within the parenthesis we

will type standard C in then comma our

variable name now we should be able to

type in a string including any

spaces what's your full name type in

your own first name and last name hit

enter what's your age I'll type in 21

hello bro code you are 21 years old if

you need to accept a string that

includes any white spaces you're better

off using the getline function and if

you forget I'll post this in the

comments section so you can always take

a look at it if you don't remember okay

there's just one issue with this though

I'm going to move the second question

above the

first let's take a look to see what

happens what's your age 21 what's your

full name hello you are 21 years old

here's the issue if we accept some user

input with C in followed by get line

well in our input buffer there's a new

line character and we don't pick up that

new line character when we reach the get

line function it accepts the new line

character that's still within the buffer

so to prevent that from happening

there's one change that we can make to

the getline function after CN add this

extraction operator standard WS for any

Whit spaces this portion will eliminate

any new line characters or any white

spaces before any user input so let's

try this again what's your age I'll type

in 21 type in your full

name and there we go hello bro code you

are 21 years old so yeah everybody

that's how to accept some user input

basically you can just use CN followed

by the extraction operator but if you

need a string that could include spaces

I recommend using the getline function

so yeah that's how to accept some user

input in C++ plus if you would like a

copy of all this code I'll post this in

the comment section down below and well

yeah that's how to accept some user

input in

C++ hey guys in this video I'm going to

show you eight useful math related

functions in C++ let's begin by creating

three variables double X and I will set

this to be three Double Y that will be

four then double z we will declare this

but not assign it the first useful math

related function is the max function

which will return the greater of two

values or

variables I'll assign the result within

z z

equals standard max parentheses within

the parentheses add two values or

variables I'll compare X and Y then

let's display the result standard output

I would like to display whatever Z is

the greater number between three and

four is well you guessed it four

alternatively there's the Min function Z

equals standard Min let's compare X then

y so the minimum between these two

values would be three so that's Max and

Min now the rest of these functions are

found within the cmath header file at

the top of our file let's include C math

we have the PO function to raise a base

to a given power

Z equal PO for power let's raise 2 the^

of

3 Z would be 8 2 the^ of 4 would be 16

that's the power function then we have

square root Z =

sqrt what's the square otk of 9 well the

square < TK of

9 is three

then we have absolute value Z equals Abs

if you place a negative number within

the absolute value function it will give

you the positive version of that number

how far it is away from zero so -3 the

absolute value of -3 would be 3 that is

the absolute value function next we have

the round function let's change X to

3.14 Z equal round let's round x 3.14

rounded would be three if you need to

round up there's a cealing function Z

equals Seal Seal means cealing let's

round x x rounded

up is four alternatively there's the

floor function which will always round

down let's change X to 3.99 to test it

Z equals

floor x x rounded

down is three so yeah everybody that is

a super quick video on a few useful math

related functions if you head to this

URL C+ plus.com reference cmath there's

a lot more useful math functions that

you may be interested in but we just

covered a few of the basics in the next

topic we're going to create a practice

program to find the hypo new of a right

triangle so yeah those are a few useful

math related functions in

C++ okay everybody this is going to be a

practice project to calculate the

hypotenuse of a right triangle which we

can find with this formula C = theare <

TK of a^2 + b^2 we'll Begin by declaring

our variables double

a double

B Double C

make sure you include cmath as well

because we'll be using the power

function as well as the square root

function at this point we'll accept some

user input for sides A and B standard

output will create a

prompt enter side

a standard

input

a then we'll need side B standard output

put enter side

B standard

input

B we can handle this formula step by

step we could reassign a equal

to power function a to the power of

two b equals power function B to the^ of

two side C equals the Square t of a +

b then at the end we will display

whatever side C is

standard

output side

C

C okay let's try

this enter side a I'll type in three

side B will be four side C is five we

could shorten this code too we could say

the square root of a to the^ of 2 plus b

to the^ of

two then we no longer need these two

lines that's another way of writing it

in less lines of code let's try this

again this time side a will be four side

B will be five side C is 6 .4 so yeah

everybody that's a simple practice

project just to get us used to accepting

user input as well as some math related

functions if you would like a copy of

this program I'll post this in the

comment section down below and well yeah

that's a simple practice project in

C++ all right guys we are on if

statements with an if statement you do

something if a condition you set is true

if not then don't do it it's as simple

as that we'll ask a user what their age

is if their age is greater than or equal

to 18 they'll be allowed into our site

if they're under 18 well we won't let

them in let's declare variable age int

age then we'll create a prompt standard

output enter your

age

standard

input age okay this is how to write an

if statement you type if then a set of

parenthesis then a set of curly braces

if some condition within the parentheses

is true you perform some subset of code

we are going to check if age is greater

than or equal to 18 greater than or

equal to is a comparison operator

there's other comparison operators such

as less than or equals to less than

greater than if you need to compare if

two values are equal you use two equal

signs you don't want to say equals cuz

then you're setting age equal to 18

equals is the assignment operator so

let's check to see if age is greater

than or equal to 18 then we'll print a

message standard

output welcome to the

site okay let's try

this enter your age let's say that I'm

12 well it doesn't do anything since

this condition EV evaluated to be false

we skip over this body of code if it

were true then we execute it this time

my age is 21 I hit enter welcome to the

site if you would rather do something

else if a condition is false you can use

an else statement an else statement you

will place at the end there is no

condition else we will print standard

output you are not old enough to enter

okay let's try this

again enter your age I'll say that I'm

12 you are not old enough to enter

that's an if statement if some condition

is true you do something if not you can

do something else or nothing at all

there are more conditions you can check

by using an else if statement we can

check another condition by adding else

if if this condition is false check this

else if condition uh let's check to see

if age is is less than

zero that means somebody hasn't been

born

yet you haven't been born

yet okay now check this

out let's say that my age is

-10 and I hit enter you haven't been

born yet since this condition was false

we skip the section of code then we

check the else if statement since this

condition was true we execute this body

of code then skip over the else

statement let's add one more Els if

statement else

if age is greater than or equal to

100

standard

output you are too old to enter this

site okay enter your age I am 120 years

old I hit enter welcome to the site we

check these conditions one by one

starting from the top we stated that our

age was 120 years old even though we

were expecting to execute this body of

code we instead executed this body of

code within the if statement that's

because our age was technically still

greater than or equal to 18 so the order

of your if and else if statements does

matter it makes a difference if we need

to execute this body of code if

somebody's age is greater than or equal

to 100 well then we should probably move

that to the top then turn it into an if

statement else if age is greater than or

equal to 18 we will display this message

let's try this one more time enter your

age I am 120 years old I hit enter you

are too old to enter this site so yeah

that's an if statement you do something

if a condition is true if not then you

don't do it if you would rather do

something else you can use an else

statement if there's other conditions

you would like to check before reaching

the else statement you can use an else

if statement and there's really no limit

to these if you would like a copy of

this code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah those

are if statements in

C++ all right everybody today we're

going to discuss switches a switch is an

alternative to using many else if

statements it Compares One value against

many matching cases here's an example of

what you don't want to do I have this

program we have variable month month is

of the integer data type the user will

type in a number 1 through 12 to

represent the month if month is equal to

1 it is January else if month is equal

to two it is February else if month is

three four five so on and so forth this

is what you don't want to do because

it's inefficient it's how the game

yandere simulator was created if you

know what that is a better solution

would be to use a switch this is how to

right one I'm going to delete all of

this we will type switch parenthesis

curly braces what value would we like to

examine against matching cases let's

examine our month to write a case we

would type case then the value let's

check to see if month is equal to one so

case one colon on the next line what we

want to do if month is equal to one

let's display a message stand

output it is

January at the end of this case add

break to break out of the switch so that

is case one let's work on case two so

case two it is February I think the rest

is self-explanatory I'll speed up the

footage

we have our 12 cases 1 through 12 each

case corresponding with a month of the

year let's run this enter the month

let's say that the month is Four for

April it is April one more time time the

month is 12th it is December so a switch

is an alternative to using many else if

statements it's more efficient and

easier to read if there are no matching

cases we can execute a default case type

default then what would we like to do

standard

output let's say please enter in only

numbers 1 through 12

enter the month uh let's type

42 please enter in only numbers 1- 12 so

the default case is kind of like the

else statement if there are no matching

cases we execute whatever is within the

default case let's try one more example

this time we'll have a user enter in a

character a letter grade will display a

custom message depending on what grade

they have

Char

grid standard

output what letter

grade

standard

input

grade then we'll create a switch switch

parenthesis curly braces we're examining

our letter grade against matching cases

the first case will be the character a

what will we display if somebody

receives an

a standard

output you did

great then

break case

b standard

output you did

good then break

case

C

standard

output you did

okay

break case

D standard

output you did

not do good

break case

f standard

output you

failed break then let's add a default

case please only enter in a letter

grade A through

F let's try it what letter grade I

received an a you did

great what letter grid F you failed then

let's test our default case what letter

grid

pizza please only enter in a letter

grade A through F so yeah that's a

switch everybody it's an alternative to

using many else if statements it's more

efficient and easier to read your

assignment is to create a switch and

post it in the comment section and well

yeah those are switches in

C++ hey guys in this video we're going

to create a simple calculator program

now that we know how switches work this

will be a very simple program let's

begin by declaring our variables at the

top we'll need a character for an

operator we'll name this op the operator

will be either addition subtraction

multiplication or

division double num one double num two

double

result this next part isn't necessary

but I'm just going to add one line of

text when we begin the program I'll add

a bunch of asterisks let's say

calculator then I'll add a new line to

the

end wherever my program ends I will

create another line of

asterisks and I can get rid of that new

line character

our code for our program will be within

these two lines of output let's ask the

user what operand they would like

standard

output enter

either addition subtraction

multiplication or

division

standard

input we'll store the response within

the variable

op standard output

enter number

one standard

input num

one let's copy these two lines paste

them change one here and here now we

need a

switch switch parentheses curly braces

we're examining our operator against

matching cases the first case will be

addition make sure the operand is within

single quotes cuz it's a character if

the user wants to add two numbers we'll

take result equals num one plus num 2

display the result standard output will

display the word

result followed by the variable

result then I'll add a new line to the

end then break then we need a case force

subtraction case subtraction num one

minus num

two

multiplication case

multiplication num

one times num two then

division case division num one / num two

what if somebody doesn't type been a

valid operator let's add a default case

default standard

output that wasn't a valid

response then break I'll add a new line

too okay we are good to go let's save

run

this

calculator let's add two numbers enter

number one

1.23 enter number two

3.14 the result is

4.37 let's run this

again we will subtract two

numbers

1.23 - 3.14 is -

1.91 let's multiply two

numbers

1.23 *

3.14 that's 3 3.86

22 now we will divide two numbers

1.23 /

3.14 that is

0.39

172 let's type in an operator that's not

valid how about a w enter number one

1.23

3.14 that wasn't a valid response

actually I think it would be better if

we said that wasn't a valid operator

all right everybody that is a simple

calculator program in C++ using a switch

if you would like a copy of this code

I'll post this in the comment section

down below if you're enjoying this

series please let me know by Smashing

that like button leave a random comment

down below and subscribe if you'd like

to become a fellow

bro okay guys we are talking about the

tary operator which is represented by a

question mark followed by a colon It's a

replacement to using an if else

statement you write a condition then add

a question mark kind of like you're

asking a question is something true if

that condition is true we can do some

code if it's false we do some other code

here's an example we have a grade my

grade is 75 if grade is greater than or

equal to 60 I'll output you pass else

will output you fail my grade is

75 therefore I pass another way of

writing this is to use the tary op

operator first we write a condition so

let's get rid of this if

statement after our condition We'll add

a question mark now parentheses are

optional then we write some

expression standard output you pass we

do this if our condition is true colon

what will we do if that condition is

false well let's use whatever is within

our else

statement and this would work the same

if my GR is

75 you

pass if it's

50 you fail let's come up with a few

other

examples let's check to see if a number

is even or

odd int number equals what about nine we

write a condition we'll check if number

modulus 2 remember modulus gives you the

remainder of any division does number

divide by two evenly so this returns a

one or a zero if number modulus 2 is

equal to

1 question mark then let's

display

odd if it's false we'll display standard

output

even okay odd let's change number to

8 now it's even you don't necessarily

need equals 1 or equals 0 the number one

does correspond to true and zero

corresponds to false so you could write

it like this too 8 divides by two evenly

that's even if it's

nine that is odd okay last

example let's examine a Boolean variable

bull how about hungry is somebody hungry

I'll set this to be

true let's write our

condition

hungry equals true question mark now if

you're examining to see if a Boolean

variable is true you don't necessarily

need equals true you can just say that

Boolean variable hungry question mark

like you're asking a question so if

hungry is true we will do this standard

output use are

hungry colon what will we do if it's

false standard

output you are

full hungry is set to

true you are hungry if it were

false you are full if we're displaying

output there's a couple different ways

in which we could write this it's up to

you how you want to handle it so another

way of writing the same code code would

be

standard

output then within a set of parentheses

then we could use our chary

operator hungry question

mark you are

hungry

else you are

full this would work as well let's just

check that hungry is set to false you

are full let's set it to true

you are hungry so yeah that's the tary

operator everybody it's a question mark

followed by a colon you write a

condition as if you're asking a question

if that condition is true you do some

expression if not you do some other

expression it's a replacement to an if

else statement your assignment is to

post a use of the trinary operator in

the comment section and well yeah that's

the tary operator in C++

hey guys in this video I'm going to

discuss the and or as well as not

logical operators we'll begin with and

the and logical operator will check to

see if two conditions are true here's an

example we'll ask a user what the

temperature is int temp short for

temperature standard output this will be

a prompt enter the

temperature standard input put temp with

the and logical operator we check to see

if two or more conditions are true let's

see if our temperature Falls within a

certain range if condition then a set of

curly braces we'll check to see if our

temperature is above zero if temp is

above

zero and temp is less than let's say 30

in order for us to execute this if

statement both of the conditions must be

true this condition and this condition

must be true if one of them is false we

skip over this if statement so if our

temperature Falls within that

range the

temperature

is

good

else standard

output the temperature

is

bad okay let's try

it enter the temperature uh let's say

it's 25° this will be in

Celsius the temperature is good let's

try it again uh what about

-100°

CSI uh the temperature is bad yeah no

kidding one more time uh positive 100° C

the temperature is bad so with the and

logical operator we check to see if two

or more conditions are true there's

another way of writing the same program

too we can use the or logical operator

which is represented by two vertical

bars it checks to see if at least one of

two conditions are true if temp is less

than or equal to

zero or temp is greater than or equal to

30 the temperature is bad else the temp

temperature is good in order for us to

execute this if statement only one

condition has to be true if both of them

are false we don't do anything what's

the temperature the temperature is 25

that's within that range the temperature

is good one more time enter the

temperature it is1 100° C the

temperature is bad all right so that's

the and as well as the or logical

operator there's one more the not

logical operator which is an exclamation

point it reverses The Logical state of

its operand meaning if a condition is

true it becomes false if it's originally

false it becomes true let's create

another variable this will be a Boolean

sunny sunny can be true or

false I'll write another if

statement if Sunny is equal to

true now if you're examining to see if a

Boolean variable is true you don't

necessarily need to say equals true you

could just type the name of the Boolean

variable if

Sunny if Sunny is true we'll display a

message standard output it is sunny

outside else standard

output it is cloudy outside

okay one more

time enter the temperature it's 20°

C I should probably add some new line

characters there enter the temperature

it's 25° C the temperature is good it is

sunny outside if we use the not logical

operator we can preed a condition with

an exclamation point we're checking to

see if it's not

Sunny that means we would want to change

our output if is cloudy outside else it

is sunny outside let's change Sunny to

be false enter the temperature it is 50°

C the temperature is bad it is cloudy

outside so yeah everybody those are

logical operators and or not your

assignment is to use either the and or

or otherwise not logical operator then

post it in the comment section down

below whatever you wrote so yeah those

are logical operators in C+

Plus+ okay guys in this video we're

going to create a temperature conversion

program to convert from Fahrenheit to

Celsius or Celsius to Fahrenheit at the

top of our program let's declare our

variables double temp temp is short for

temperature then Char

unit will the user select Celsius or

Fahrenheit now with my programs I like

to add a title at the beginning standard

output

temperature

conversion it's totally not necessary

but it's something that I like to do

then I'll add another line of output at

the end of my program to show the user

that the program is over I'll just add a

bunch of asterisks like I said totally

not necessary but it's something I just

like to do I will display a couple lines

of

output f equals

fenit I can never spell Fahrenheit right

I think that's okay I'll add a new

line standard

output C

equals

Celsius add a new

line standard

output what unit would you like to

convert to

standard input

unit the user will hopefully type in F

or C depending on what they want to

convert to let's check to see if the

user types in F first if unit is equal

to the character F that's a capital f

but you know maybe the user types in

lowercase St I'll add an or conditional

operator or you

is equal to a lowercase f that's also a

valid response if the user would like to

convert a temperature to Fahrenheit

these are the steps we can

do standard

output enter the

temperature

in

celsius standard input

temp to store the temperature to convert

our temperature from Celsius to

Fahrenheit we can assign temp equal to

now here's the formula

1.8 * R temp plus

32 then we will display the temperature

standard

output

temperature is

temp

degrees

Fahrenheit then I'll add a new

line if the user would like to convert

to Celsius I'll add an else if

statement else if unit is equal

to the character Capital C or unit is

equal to the character lowercase C

we can copy these two lines of code and

reuse them we'll just repurpose them

enter the temperature in

Fahrenheit here is the formula to

convert from Fahrenheit to

Celsius temp

equals our current temperature -

32 /

1.8 then let's display our temperature

I'll copy this line of code paste it Che

change Fahrenheit to

Celsius now what if the user doesn't

type in a valid

response else standard

output please enter in only C or

F add a new

line and that should be everything let's

try

this temperature conversion program what

unit would you like to convert to I

would like to convert to to

Fahrenheit enter the temperature in

celsius so what's 0° C converted to

Fahrenheit that is 32° Fahrenheit let's

go again let's convert to

Celsius enter the temperature in

fahrenheit what's 100° in

Celsius

37.7 de Celsius let's type in a response

that's not valid uh I would like to

convert to Pizza please enter in only C

or F all right everybody that is a

program to convert from Fahrenheit to

Celsius or vice versa I thought we could

use some practice using conditional

operators as well as if statements if

you would like a copy of this code I'll

post this in the comment section down

below and well yeah that's a temperature

conversion program in

C++ hey what's going on everybody so in

this video I'm going to explain some

useful string method methods that you

might be interested in let's begin by

creating a variable named name standard

string name we'll accept some user input

we'll need a prompt standard

output enter your

name a user's name may contain spaces

we're better off using the getline

function

standard

getline standard CN

name the first useful method is the

length method type your string name

follow it with

DOT length parentheses the length method

will give you the length of a string

let's write this within an if

statement if name. length method is

greater than 12 we'll print a message

such as your name can't be over 12

characters

long standard

output your

name can't be over 12

characters else we'll print a different

message standard

output

welcome the user's name enter your name

type in your full name

welcome whatever your name is okay now

what if our name is over 12

characters type in your full

name then just add a bunch of

characters your name can't be over 12

characters that is the built-in length

method of strings you type a string

follow it with DOT length parentheses

wherever you invoke this method in that

spot you will return the length of that

string in characters the empty method

will will return if a string is empty or

not type your string

name. empty parentheses this returns a

Boolean value if name is

empty we'll display a

message you didn't enter your

name

else hello whatever your name

is okay I'm just going to hit enter you

didn't enter your name but if I do enter

my name it works normally hello whatever

your name is that is the empty method of

strings you'll check to see if a string

is empty or not a useful case of this is

to check to see if somebody enters in

some user input another is clear name.

CLE then let's display our name

standard

output

hello

name enter your name type in your first

name and last

name hello and we don't have a name

anymore because that name has been

cleared so that is the clear method we

can append a string to another string

after my name I will use append

parentheses within the parenthesis we

can add a string to the end of another

string I'll add

gmail.com standard

output your username is

now

name andent to your

name your username is your name with

gmail.com appended to it that is the

append method we can return a character

at a given position within a string

standard

output type your string name do at

parentheses so the first character in a

string has an index of zero I'll display

whatever that character is Ander your

name so the first character in my string

is a capital B the character at index

one well that would be R we can insert a

character at a given position type your

string

follow it with

insert there will be two arguments will

list within the parentheses and index so

the beginning of our string would have

an index of zero comma then what would

we like to insert I'll insert the at

sign at the beginning of my

name then let's display our

name okay so we we now have the at sign

inserted at the beginning of our string

or you could pick a different position

the index of one would be the second

character technically so yeah pick a

position then you can insert a string

now we can find a certain character I

would like to find if there's any spaces

within my name name.

find then place a character I'll look

for any white spaces this method will

give me the position of the first space

type in your first name and last name

the index of the first White space

within my name has an index of three the

first character is always zero 0 1 2

three okay then lastly erase

name. erase we can erase a portion of a

string we'll need a beginning index and

an ending index I'll eliminate the first

three characters then we will display

our name enter your

name okay and that's what's left in my

name I deleted the first three

characters the first number is the

beginning index the second is the ending

index it's not inclusive though so yeah

those are a few helpful string Methods

if you would like to know more head to

the string class on the C+ plus.com

website and there's a fairly extensive

list hey if you're enjoying the series

let me know by Smashing that like button

leave a random comment down below and

subscribe if you'd like to become a

fellow

bro hey hey everybody in this video I'm

going to explain while Loops a while

loop is much like an if statement except

we can repeat some code potentially an

infinite amount of times here's an

example of where a while loop would be

useful let's say that we'll have a user

entering their name standard string name

at first I'll use an if statement if

name I'll check to see if the name is

empty did the user actually type in

something if name is empty we'll create

a

prompt standard

output enter your

name

standard

getline standard

input name once we exit the if statement

we'll display a message involving the

user's name standard

output hello

name enter your name I'm just going to

hit enter and not entering anything

hello and I don't have a name what if we

need to force the user to do something

in order to continue with the rest of

the program well we could change this if

statement to a while

loop if this condition remains true we

will execute this code a potentially

infinite amount of times once we reach

the end of this code block we check the

condition again if it's still true we

repeat the code again enter your name

I'm going to hit enter enter your name

no enter your name no enter your name no

so I can't actually continue with the

rest of my program until I type in

something I'll type in my full name hit

enter hello whatever your name is

basically speaking a while loop is kind

of like an if statement except it can

repeat some code infinitely as long as

this condition remains true we check

this condition once when we enter the

while loop then anytime we finish the

while loop we check the condition again

if the condition is false we exit then

continue on with the rest of the program

you do want some way to exit the while

loop let's write a condition that we

won't be able to change it all while one

is equal to one there's no way we can

escape this while loop so this is what's

known as an infinite Loop I'll display a

message

help I'm stuck in an

infinite

Loop then when I run this yeah we're

stuck in an infinite Loop and we can't

actually move on or do anything so yeah

that's basically a while loop everybody

while some condition that you set

remains true you will continue to

execute some code a great use of a while

loop is that you can force a user to do

something in order to continue with the

rest of the code your assignment is to

use a while loop then post it in the

comment section down below and well you

yeah those are while Loops in

C++ all right everybody do while Loops a

do while loop it does some block of code

first and then you repeat that block of

code if a condition is true here's an

example let's write a program that will

ask a user to enter in a positive number

first we'll use a while loop that'll

demonstrate how a do while loop would

actually be better for the situation we

have an integer number int number

I'll write a while loop while number is

less than zero we will prompt the user

to enter in a positive

number enter a positive

number okay standard

input number outside of the while loop

at the end of our program let's display

the number standard

output the

number

is number so this isn't going to work

normally here's why let's run this the

number is zero so this is what's going

on we've declared our number but have

not assigned a value quite yet when we

reach the while loop we check the

condition if the condition is true we

execute this block of code since we've

declared an integer variable but have

not assigned it a value it's defaulting

to just zero 0 is not less than zero so

so this condition is false that means we

skip the while loop and continue on

another way in which we could write this

but it's not the best solution is that

we could copy what's within this block

of code then run it once if number is

still less than zero we would then

execute this block of code repeatedly

let's try this

again okay enter a positive number 1 2 3

the number is 1 2 3 let's type in a

negative number negative 1 enter a

positive number negative 1 enter a

positive number 1 so I can't actually

continue until I enter in a positive

number you know this does work but

there's a much better way of writing

this because you know we're repeating at

least two lines of code when we really

don't need to we need to run this block

of code once and then repeat it if this

condition is true well you know what

would be great for that a Doh Loop let's

eliminate these two lines of code to

create a do while loop we will move this

condition to the

end while then our condition

preceding the left curly brace right do

do this code once and then check the

condition make sure you have a semicolon

at the end let's try it

again enter a positive number I'm just

going to type in a negative number

negative 1 nope 1 nope how about a

positive number 1 2 3 the number is 1 2

3 so that's a do while loop you do some

block of code first then you repeat it

again if the condition is true it's an

optional way to repeat some code one

good use of a do while loop that comes

to mind maybe we're playing a game we

would like to run the game once at the

end of the game a user can choose if

they would like to play again based on

the user's input if they would like to

play again we can run the game one more

time repeatedly so that's a do while

loop everybody I'll post this code in

the comment section down below and well

yeah that's a do while loop in

C++ all right guys in this video I'm

going to explain for Loops a for Loop is

a loop that will execute a block of code

a specified amount of times to create a

for Loop we type for parentheses curly

braces within the for Loop there are up

to three statements that we can add the

first is that we can create an index a

sort of

counter int index I'll set the equal to

be we'll start at one then finish the

statement with a semicolon now what a

lot of people do instead of saying index

they'll just shorten this to I the

second statement is a stopping condition

let's count up to three I'll continue

this as long as I is less than or equal

to three then semicolon to finish that

statement the third statement is that we

can increment or decrement our counter

our index I'll increment my index by one

by saying

i++ okay let's repeat something Three

Times Standard

output how about happy New Year Happy

New Year

here this code should be repeated three

times happy New Year happy New Year

Happy New Year I should probably add a

new line now let's try this five times

we'll begin I at one we'll continue this

as long as I is less than or equal to

5 okay 1 2 3 4 5 that's it this time

let's count up to 10 then display happy

New Year once we exit out of the for

Loop I'll move this line to outside of

the for

Loop I'll set I to be 1 we'll continue

this as long as I is less than or equal

to 10 during each iteration of the for

loop I will display whatever I is

standard output I then I'll add a new

line

okay here we go

go we're starting at one then we're

counting up to 10 then we escape the for

Loop once we escape the for Loop then we

print happy New Year when you increment

or decrement your counter you can skip

iterations let's increase I by two after

each iteration I plus equals 2 now we're

counting up by

twos 1 357 9 Happy New Year we can even

set our index to be a different number

let's begin at Z we're still counting up

by twos 0 2 4 6 8 Happy New Year we

could even increment I by

three

0369 happy New Year or we could

decrement and go backwards

iusus this time we will begin at 10 then

continue as long as I is less than or

equal to zero so this would be a

countdown 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 happy

New Year okay let's decrement I by two

after each iteration IUS =

2 108

6420 happy New Year so yeah everybody

that's a for Loop there's a lot of

overlap where you could use either a

while loop or a for Loop for Loops tend

to be better in situations where you

only need to repeat code a certain

amount of times your assignment is to

post a use of the for Loop in the

comment section down below and well yeah

those are for Loops in C++

hey everybody so in this video I'm going

to explain the break and the continue

keywords the break keyword will break

out of a loop another place where you

see this is a switch within a switch

statement continue will skip the current

iteration here's an example let's create

a for Loop that will count up to the

number 20 I'll set I equal to B1 I will

continue this as long as I is less than

or equal to 20 then increment I by One

standard out out put I'll display

whatever I is then I'll add a new line

new

line then let's take a look so we have

the numbers 1 through 20 I would like to

skip the number 13 because 13 is

considered an unlucky number I know it's

a weird example what I'll do is use an

if statement within my for Loop if I is

equal to 13 first we'll break then see

what happens if we break where I equal

13

then we have the numbers 1 through 12

once we hit 13 we break out of the loop

we do not finish the rest of the

iterations if we replace break with

continue this is instead what

happens we have the numbers 1 through 20

but the number 13 isn't there so using

the continue keyword we skip the current

iteration so yeah that's the break and

the continue keywords these keywords are

available if you need them but where

you'll use them it really depends but

just so you know they exist and that is

the break and the continue keywords in

C++ all right guys we are on nested

Loops a nested Loop is just a loop

that's inside of another loop it doesn't

matter what kind of loop you're working

with it can be a while loop or a four

Loop or whatever here's an example we'll

create a loop to count the numbers 1

through 10 we'll count to 10 three times

so let's create a basic Loop for now in

I I'll set this equal to be 1 the

condition will be I is less than or

equal to 10 then I will increment I by

1 during each iteration I will display

whatever I is then I'll add a

space

there this Loop will count up to

10 just like that so now I would like to

count up to 10 three times Well I can

stick this Loop in another loop so let's

create the outer

loop for in I I'll set this equal to be

one I'll continue this as long as I is

less than or equal to 3 then increment I

by

1 so I'm going to take this Loop and

stick it within the curly braces of the

outer for Loop however you don't want

these Loops to have the same index a

common naming convention for the inner

loop is to use J as the counting index j

j j j okay let's take a

look okay now we count up to 10 three

times but what I think I'm going to do

is that every time we exit the for Loop

the inner for Loop I'll just print a new

line character

standard

output new

line yeah that's much better so yeah

nested Loop is just a loop inside of

another loop just as a practice project

let's create a program that will print a

rectangle made out of symbols we'll let

a user specify how many rows and columns

we'll use our Nesta Loop that we created

previously so we have int rows int

columns then char

symbol we're going to ask for some user

input we'll need some prompts standard

output how many

rows standard

input

rows let's copy this paste it change

rows to

columns then

enter a symbol to

use standard

input

symbol we'll continue printing rows as

long as I is less than or equal to rows

whatever we typed in we don't want any

more rows than what the user wants the

inner loop is going to be in charge of

the columns J is less than or equal to

columns in place of printing J let's

print our symbol whatever the user

picked and we do not need to separate

these with any spaces all right let's

try

this how many rows what about three

rows then six columns enter a symbol to

use what about the at sign and there's

our rectangle there's three

rows and six

columns let's try it one last

time how about four rows and five

columns I'll use a dollar sign okay we

have four rows 1 2 3 4 five columns 1 2

3 4 5 so yeah everybody that's a nested

loop it's a loop that's inside of

another loop when you'll use these it

really depends on the situation I

thought this would be a fun practice

project if you would like a copy of this

code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah those

are nested Loops in C++

hey this is bro from the future before

you begin this topic to work with random

numbers you may need to include this

header file C time hey everybody in this

video I'm going to show you how we can

generate some random numbers just so you

know these are pseudo random numbers

they're not truly random but they're

close maybe if you need to roll a

six-sided dice for a game well then this

would work perfect to generate some

random numbers we'll need to initialize

the random number generator by typing s

Rand add a set of parentheses semicolon

within the S Rand function we'll need a

seed what programmers typically do is

that they'll use the current calendar

time as a seed within the parenthesis

type time parentheses again then pass in

null I'll store the first random number

within a variable int num equals to

generate a random number we invoke the

Rand function then I'll display this

let's take a look to see what we have

standard output

num okay the random number that we have

is

3,231 using the Rand function this will

generate a random number between 0 and

32,767 but we don't necessarily need a

number that large I just need to roll a

six-sided dice well what we're going to

do is follow this with modulus than the

range of numbers we would like if I'm

rolling a six-sided dice I'll type

modulus 6 modulus gives you the

remainder of any division so take

whatever number We Roll divide it by six

take the remainder and that's our number

but there's one issue with this we have

five 2 and zero technically the range of

numbers is currently 0 through 5 if we

need 1 through six what we can do is add

one plus 1 this should give us a random

number between 1 and and

six there it is six so I tend to play a

lot of Dungeons and Dragons there's

polyhedral dice one die that we commonly

roll is a 20-sided dice so if I would

need a random number between 1 and 20 I

would say Rand function modulus 20 my

random number is one wow that's

surprisingly

low then I have a 14 maybe you need a

random number between 1 and 100 Rand

function modu

100 my random number between 1 and 100

is 67 now I need to roll three six-sided

dice I'm going to create three

variables let's name this num one Rand

function modulus 6 + one then let's copy

this paste it twice we have num one num

two num three let's display num one I'll

add a new line

then do this two more times for Num two

and num three so our three dice that

we're rolling are 5

22 then again 3 1 4 yeah everybody

that's how to generate some pseudo

random numbers they're not truly random

but they're close if you have a simple

game you're working on this would work

perfect if you would like a copy of this

code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

how to generate some some random numbers

in

C++ hey everybody in this topic we're

going to create a random event generator

using random numbers and a switch this

might be useful maybe if you're writing

a game you need some random event to

occur like random monsters show up or

the weather changes anything like that

we'll be working with random numbers you

may need to include this header file

include C time cuz we need access to the

time function to work with random

numbers will need to generate a seed s

Rand function pass in time pass in

zero this function will use the current

time as a seed to Generate random

numbers we'll create a local variable to

store our random number int Rand num

equals use the Rand

function

modulus then what's the range of numbers

you would like I would like the numbers

1 through five

but this will give us 0 through four so

I'm going to add one to the

end my integer random num will be a

random number between 1 and five I'm

going to create a switch to examine this

random number against many matching

cases so we have case

one through

five if the random number is one what

would you like to do exactly so in this

program I think we're going to give away

prizes like it's a random prize

generator depending on the random number

we'll give a participant a random

prize standard output you win how about

a bumper sticker a bumper

sticker that will be the lowest tier

prize then we should probably add a

break to break out of the

switch okay let's think of some others

and I should probably break after

these prize two will be a

t-shirt prize three how about a free

lunch prize

four maybe a gift

card case

five concert tickets that sounds good so

when I run this program we'll generate a

random number between 1 and 5 depending

on what that number is we'll execute the

code found within one of these

cases let's see what I won I won a free

lunch if I try this again there's a good

chance it'll be a different prize this

time I won a bumper

sticker I want a bumper sticker again

come on I want those concert tickets

I'll take a a gift card that's not bad

now if you don't add these break

statements you'll just fall through the

switch you want a gift card you want

concert

tickets so if you only want somebody to

win one prize you'll want to exit out of

the switch by including this break

statement so yeah everybody I thought

that might be an interesting program you

can generate some random event maybe

it's for a game or something I thought

maybe a random prize giveaway would kind

of be interesting this program is more

or less for practice your assignment is

to write a switch with some random

events then post it in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

a random event generator using

C++ all right welcome back everybody in

this video we're going to create a

simple number guessing game Let's

declare our variables int num our number

will be randomly generated int guess

this variable will hold the current

player gu int tries how many tries is it

going to take for the user to guess the

correct number we'll be using the srand

function to generate some random

numbers pass in time pass in null we

will assign our variable num a random

number between 1 and 100 Rand

function modulus

100 then add

one this function will give us a random

number between 1 in 100 start with a num

just for some decorations I'm going to

create a title for this

game number guessing

game then add a new

line I'll place all of this code within

a do while loop

do

while our guess does not equal num we

will have the user type in another guess

we'll create a prompt standard

output enter a guess

between 1 through

100 standard

input guess once the user types in guess

we will increment our tries variable by

one to keep track of the score

now we'll have to examine the guess

versus the

number

if guess is greater than

num let's

display too

high I'll add a new

line else

if gas is less than num

then we'll

display to

low

else if the guess is not above the

number and the guess is not below the

number the guess must be equal to the

number standard

output

correct we'll display the number of

tries number of tries

we'll display our tries

variable I'll add a new

line and I'll just add a line of text

for decoration at the bottom once we

exit the

game that should be everything let's run

this number guessing game I'll guess

something right in the middle 50 too low

okay so the number is between 50 and 100

I'll guess right in the middle of that

range

75 too high something between 50 and 75

perhaps

62 that's still too high

56 too high 53 to

low

54

55 all right the correct guess was 55 it

took me seven tries I don't really think

that's too good but it works okay

everybody that is a simple number

guessing game involving the use of do

while loops and generating random

numbers if you would like a copy of this

code I'll post this in the comment

section down below if you're enjoying

the series please let me know by

Smashing that like button leave a random

comment down below and subscribe if

you'd like to become a fellow

bro well well well everybody we have a

pretty important lesson today today

we're going to talk about functions a

function is a block of reusable code if

you ever think that you're going to use

some section of code more than once you

might as well stick it within a function

here's an example I'll create a function

to sing Happy Birthday currently our

program is within the main function to

begin the program we call the main

function before the main function we can

create a new function for the time being

we're going to type

void then a unique function name the

function name should be descriptive of

what it does if I'm going to sing Happy

Birthday let's name this function the

happy birthday function then add a set

of parenthesis then a set of curly

braces you can see that this is almost

identical to our main function except

with the main function we have a return

type and return zero what would we like

to do when we invoke this function let's

sing some of the lyrics to Happy

Birthday standard

output

happy birthday to you add a new line

I'll repeat this a couple times

happy birthday dear you happy birthday

to you to invoke this function all we

have to do is within the main function

type the function name followed by a set

of parentheses this will call or

otherwise known as invoke the function I

like to think of the parentheses as a

pair of telephones that are talking to

each other to use a function you have to

call the function call it up on the

phone so when I run this code we have

the lyrics to Happy Birthday this

function is reusable I can call this

function as many times as I want I'll

call this function two additional times

just to separate these lyrics I'm going

to add an additional new line

character okay we now should have three

verses of happy birthday 1 2 3 that's

because I called the function well three

times a function is just a block of

reusable code now what a lot of people

do is that they'll declare and Define

their functions after after the main

function because it's more readable to

many people but there's one issue with

this happy birthday was not declared in

this

scope our programs are read from the top

down since we're invoking the happy

birthday function before we even know

what it is well the compiler doesn't

recognize it a solution to this is that

before the main function you can declare

functions but Define them later let's

declare happy birthday before the main

function then make sure you add a void

or a return type so void happy birthday

we can now use this function even though

it's after the main

function a lot of people like to Define

their functions after the main function

it's another way in which you can write

it just be sure to at least declare them

before the main function now check this

out what if we have a

variable standard string name assign

this whatever your name

is I'm going to use this name that's

declared in the main function and use it

within the happy birthday

function let's replace you with the

user's name happy birthday to name I'll

add a new

line then I'll copy

this paste

it and let's change this line as well

all right now when I run this here's the

issue name was not declared in the scope

think of each function as a house the

main function is your house functions

outside of the main function would be

your neighbors their house functions

can't see what's going on inside of

other functions you can't see what's

going on inside of your neighbor's house

you're only familiar with what's going

on inside of your own house in order for

the happy birthday function to use the

main function's name variable it needs

to be made aware of it to do that when

you invoke a neighboring function you

can pass that variable or some other

value as an argument So within the

parentheses when you invoke that

function place your values or variables

I would like to make my happy birthday

function aware of this name variable

within the main function when you send

some data over to a function that data

is also known as an argument however the

receiving function needs a matching set

of what are called parameters if this

function is going to receive this data

this name you need a matching parameter

to set up a parameter you first list the

data type we will receive a

standard string then we can list a

parameter name let's say name now this

happy birthday function can use this

name variable within the main function

if you have a function declaration at

the top of your program you'll have to

add that parameter there as well so

happy birthday standard

string and we can run this happy

birthday to whatever your name is

functions aren't aware of what's going

on inside of other functions but you can

make them aware of any local variables

or values by passing them as an argument

but you'll need a matching set of

parameters the name or otherwise unique

identifier of your parameter doesn't

necessarily need to have the same name

so to say you can name it something else

instead of naming our parameter name

let's say birthday boy or birthday

girl happy birthday to birthday

boy and that should work the same so you

can rename parameters but let's revert

that back now let's pass an age int age

equals make up some age I would like to

send my age over to the Happy Birthday

function so I will pass that as an

additional argument separate each

argument with a comma we'll send our

name as well as age now we need a

matching set of parameters right now the

happy birthday function is only equipped

to receive a name so we list the data

type int age and if you have a function

declaration change that there as

well then I'll add one more

line you are age

years

old then this should work okay happy

birthday to whatever your name is you

are whatever your age is years old so

that's a function everybody it's a block

of reusable code if you think you're

going to perform some code more than

once you can stick it within a function

whenever you need it you just simply

call it if you need to make your

function aware of any variables you can

send them as arguments to that function

but you'll need a matching set of

parameters in the function definition

and the Declaration so yeah those are

functions everybody your assignment is

to create a unique function and post it

in the comment section and well yeah

those are functions in

C++ all right everybody we are on the

return keyword the return keyword will

return a value back to the spot where

you called the encompassing function the

return keyword is commonly found at the

end of a function much like the main

function when we invoke a function we

can return some value back here's an

example I'll create a function that will

calculate the area of a square but we'll

need to pass in a length the length of

one side this will be double length

assign some value 5.0 is good then we'll

need to declare and Define a function at

the top of my program I'll add a

function declaration for the time being

we'll write void but that will change

soon void I'll name this function Square

we will square a length list any

parameters we will accept a double value

which we will name length then I'll need

a function definition I'll add that

after the main function void

Square I'm going to create a temporary

variable named result it will be of the

double data type we will take length

time length to calculate the

area then I will use that return keyword

return what are we returning we're

returning our result if we're returning

a value we need to change this keyword

void to match the DAT type of what we're

returning we're returning a double so I

will change void to double and then make

sure you change that within the function

declaration as well double square you

could do this in one line of code you

don't necessarily need to we could

simply just return length time length

that is also valid that's probably how I

would write it we now have this function

that will calculate the area of a square

once we pass in a length I'm going to

create a new variable called area it

will be of the double data type and I

will set this equal to then let's invoke

the square

function pass in our length variable as

an argument at this point of the program

area should be assigned a value let's

display it standard

output area I'll add my area

variable then add cm squared then new

line the area of our square is 25 cm

squar and I could change this to a

different number like six the area is

now 36 cm squared let's create another

function this function will find the

volume of a cube if we know the length

of a side we'll return a value of the

double data type but I will name this

Cube we will still accept the length of

the double data type

let's copy this paste it change Square

to

cube return length time length time

length double volume equals we'll invoke

our Cube function pass in our

length then I will display whatever the

volume

is volume

my volume variable cm

cubed if the side of a square is 6 cm

the area would be 36 if it was a cube

the volume would be 216 CM if you need

to return a value back to the spot in

which you invoked a function be sure to

list the data type of what you're

returning let's try another example

involving strings I'll create a function

that will add a user's first name their

last name and create a new string called

full name let's declare our variables

standard

string

first name equals add your first

name standard string last name

equals add your last name then I'll

create a function to concatenate two

strings together we're returning a

string I will list the data type as

standard string

I'll name this function concat

strings we will have two arguments two

standard strings standard string I'll

name the first string string

one standard string string I misspelled

string string two so we have our

function declaration now we just need to

Define it I'm going to

return string one plus I'll add a space

between the first name and the last

name plus string two I'll create a third

variable standard string full name

equals I will invoke my concat strings

function then I need to pass in two

strings as arguments I'll pass in my

first

name and my last name then let's display

the full name stand

output

hello the users's full

name Hello Bro Code or whatever your

first and last name is so yeah everybody

that is the return keyword wherever you

invoke a function you can return a value

back to that spot in which you invoked

that function if you're returning a

value just be sure that you change the

return type of that function to match

the data type of the value being

returned in this example I returned a

string a standard string so the return

type of this function would be a

standard string so that's the return

keyword everybody your assignment is in

the comment section to post a function

that returns some value so yeah that is

the return keyword in

C++ hey guys in this topic I'm going to

explain overloaded functions in C++ and

actually with many other programming

languages you can have different

versions of the same function here's

what I mean I have a function to bake a

pizza because well I like pizza Bake

Pizza this function will have no

parameters all I'm going to do within

this function is display the words here

is your

pizza then I'll add a new

line uh then I should probably add a

declaration at the

top void bake pizza then to invoke this

function I would type the function

name here is your pizza this time I

would like to bake a pizza that has

toppings right now we just have a plain

pizza with no toppings and that's kind

of lame I'm going to create an

additional version of this baked pizza

method but it's going to have different

parameters void bake

pizza we will accept a string stand

standard string I'll name this string

topping one we'll accept one topping as

an

argument standard output here is your

I'll add my topping here topping

one pizza then be sure to add your

function declaration

too bake pizza then this time we are

accepting a string it is valid for

functions to share the same name but you

need a different set of parameters a

function's name plus its parameters is

known as a function signature I can bake

a pizza that has no toppings here is

your pizza or I could pass in a topping

like

pepperoni here is your pepperoni pizza

let's create an additional function that

accepts two

toppings so we have topping one topping

two here is your top toing

one

and Topping

two

pizza then add your function

declaration topping one topping two now

I can bake a pizza that has two toppings

I would like pepperoni and

mushrooms here is your pepperoni and

mushroom pizza so yeah everybody those

are overloaded functions functions can

share the same name but you need a

different set of parameters a function's

name plus its parameters is known as a

function's signature and each function

signature needs to be unique kind of

like an ID so yeah those are overloaded

functions if you would like a copy of

this code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah those

are overloaded functions in C++

okay everybody we got to discuss

variable scope I'll explain local

variables and Global variables local

variables are declared inside of a

function or block of curly braces such

as within the main function or inside of

another function Global variables are

declared outside of all functions you

tend to see them at the top of your

program there's some major differences

between the two let's begin with local

variables suppose I have some number int

my num my num equals 1 if I need to

display my num I can use standard output

my num and of course this will display

my num which is one now what if I have a

function to display my num void print

num let's move this line of code to our

print num

function I'll need to add a function

declaration to the top of my

program then we will invoke this

function print num

okay this isn't going to work and here's

why my num was not declared in this

scope functions can't see inside of

other functions my function print num

has no idea what this my num variable is

my num is a local variable to the main

function that's why we pass arguments to

functions we'll make the function aware

of this value but you'll need a matching

set of parameters int my

num then add that to the function

declaration in

my

num and this would work that displays

the number one but let's get rid of

these

parameters it is legal to reuse the same

variable name as long as it's within a

different scope within the print num

function I'll also have a my num

variable that has the same name but I'll

give this a different

value when printing my num it prints two

we have two versions of the same

variable and this is fine because

they're within different scopes now a

global variable is declared outside of

all functions you see these at the top

of your program I will declare int my

num equals 3 I'm going to delete these

two local

variables if I was to invoke the print

num function and print my num well then

that number is

three This Global variable is also

available within the main function so I

will print my num here as well within

the main function

so we have three and three it's best to

avoid Global variables if you can

because it pollutes the global namespace

also variables declared within a

function are much more secure because

like I said functions can't see inside

of other functions if we had both local

and Global

variables my num within the main

function will be one within the print

num function it will be two if I was to

display my num for both of these I'm

going to add a new line to each of

new

line and new

line a function will use any local

variables first before resorting to any

Global variables that's why our print

num function prints 2 and the main

function prints one if you'd rather use

the global version you can use the scope

resolution operator so precede your

variable name with two colons that is

the scope resolution operator I'll do

that here as well in place of using the

local version of myum we will use the

global

version and we will print three we're

using the global version of my num

instead of the local version so yeah

that's variable scope local variables

are declared inside of a function or

anytime you see a set of curly braces a

variable declared inside a set of curly

braces is hidden to the outside world a

global variable is declared outside of

all functions and is accessible to all

functions within the program like I said

you should try and avoid using Global

variables if you can because it pollutes

the global namespace and these variables

are less secure so yeah that's variable

scope hey if you're enjoying this series

let me know by Smashing that like button

leave a random comment down below and

subscribe if you'd like to become a

fellow

bro hey guys in this topic we're going

to create a banking program for practice

we'll be able to deposit money withdraw

money and and show a balance this is

more or less just for practice let's

begin by creating our

functions void show

balance there will be one parameter

double balance whatever our bank account

balance is will show

it the return type is double

deposit no

parameters double withdraw and there

will be one parameter double

balance let's fill in a few things

within the main

function double balance and I will go

ahead and set this to zero as well as

int choice I will set that to zero as

well we'll use a switch to determine if

the user wants to show their balance

make a deposit a withdrawal or exit

let's display some output some

prompts standard output enter your

choice and I'm just going to add some

text decorations because I think that'll

be cool maybe a bunch of as

risks and one

more okay we have option one

one show

balance two will be deposit money

three is withdraw

money four will be

exit then we'll accept some user input

standard input

choice now we're going to create a

switch we're examining the user's choice

switch we're examining our choice

against many matching cases we have case

one case

two

3

4 then a default

case Okay case one the user wants to

show their balance will'll invoke the

show balance function but we need to

pass in our balance

balance and then we are going to

break case two the user wants to deposit

money so we're going to take our

balance equals

balance plus our deposit

function so deposit will return a double

right here so we're going to add that to

our balance once we verify it actually

we can shorten this too balance plus

equals whatever value is returned with

the deposit

function then we are going to

break case three withdraw

money balance minus

equals the withdraw function pass in our

balance we're withdrawing money from our

balance once we verify

it then we're going to

break we'll exit with case 4 I'll

display some output standard

output thanks for

visiting then I'm going to

break K default case standard

output

invalid

Choice okay now we're going to place all

of this code within a do while

loop do all of this while some condition

is true so let's take all of this code

cut

it put it within that do while loop let

me just format this a little

bit the condition will be while Choice

does not equal four four is what we used

to exit we'll need to add some function

definitions but I'm going to fill these

in later

we'll need to return something so let's

return zero for the time being for two

of these functions at least return zero

okay let's run and compile this just to

test our do while

loop okay enter your choice uh one show

balance that doesn't show our balance

yet but it will deposit money withdraw

now we should be able to exit by

pressing

four thanks for visiting okay so we know

that the do while loop is working

let's fill in our functions let's begin

with show

balance now with the show balance

function we're receiving our balance as

an

argument so I'm going to display

standard

output

your balance is dollar sign or some

other currency if you

choose I'll display our balance then add

a new line

so let's say we have

$123 in our

account I'm going to show my

balance $123 even but I would like to

display cents I'll need two decimal

places after the

decimal so there's one thing we can

include we'll include this header file

include IO man IP there's a function in

here to set some precision for floating

Point

numbers I'm going to make this change

after the dollar

sign standard set

Precision pass in two for two decimal

places then

add standard

fixed this will display our balance up

to two decimal places after the decimal

point so let's try that again

okay show balance

$123

and0 if I were to change this to

123.0 one we should display two decimal

places yep $123

And1 okay that is the show balance

function let's work on the deposit

function okay now we're within the

deposit function I'm going to create a

local variable named amount set this

equal to

zero we'll ask the user how much they

would like to deposit standard

output enter amount to be

deposited standard

input our

amount so I'm going to set balance back

to

zero then let's test

it show balance one your balance is $0

and0 I would like to make a deposit uh

$420

69 okay now I would like to show my

balance after we make a

deposit so within case two after making

a deposit let's show our balance pass in

the balance variable H let's do so after

a withdrawal

too okay let's try that

again show balance $0 0 make a deposit

$420

69 your balance is $0 cents so what

we're going to do is return our amount

at the end of this function return

amount

$420

69 all right we have our

balance the user is able to enter in

negative money enter amount to be

deposited 1,000 your balance is now

$1,000 we need to prevent somebody from

making a negative

deposit so before we return our amount

let's use an if

statement if amount is greater than zero

then we will return the

amount

else standard

output that's

not a valid

amount then let's return zero okay let's

try that

again deposit money negative

$1,000 that's not a valid amount your

balance is

0 I'm just going to add a new line like

right here then let's make a legitimate

deposit deposit money I will deposit

$1,000 And1 your balance is $11,000 And1

okay that is the deposit function that

is

complete then we have the withdraw

function we'll create a local variable

named amount of the double data type

we'll create a prompt standard

output enter amount to be

withdrawn standard

input

amount and at the end of this program we

will return

amount okay let's test it okay I need to

deposit some money first I will deposit

$1,000 and 1

C then let's withdraw money I will

withdraw $100 and 1ent my new balance is

$900 but we can overdraw our account

still so I'm going to withdraw a million

doll and 1

cent our balance shouldn't be negative

so let's prevent our user from

overdrafting their account within our

withdraw function let's add an if

statement if amount is greater than our

balance will

display

insufficient

funds then we will return

zero okay I'm going to withdraw $1

million and one

cent insufficient funds your balance is

zero okay now what if the user would

like to deposit negative money withdraw

money negative

1,000 your balance is

$1,000 we'll need to make sure that the

amount is a legitimate amount I'll add

an L if statement if

amount is less than

zero stand standard

output that's not a valid

amount now else we will return the

amount to be

withdrawn then within the lse if

statement we'll need to return zero

there okay let's withdraw money enter

amount to be withdrawn

$1,000 that's not a valid amount that's

good let's withdraw

again I would like to withdraw

$100 in sufficient funds my balance is

zero let's deposit some money

$99.99 our balance is $99 99 let's

withdraw again let's try and withdraw

$100 nope we can't let's withdraw again

$999.99 your balance is zero that's good

then let's exit

press for to exit thanks for visiting

okay so these functions are

done there's just one more thing we

should

add if I type in some characters like

the word Pizza well this will break our

program we'll want to clear the input

buffer so after our choice let's add

these two

lines

standard input. clear

function so I haven't talked about this

function this function will reset any

airor Flags when the standard input

fails to interpret the input then follow

this with f

flush this is a function pass in

standard input this will clear the input

buffer basically speaking once we hit

enter we have a new line character

within our input buffer so we just need

to flush that and get rid of it that

should prevent our program from going

crazy so let's type in some characters

invalid Choice cool then I would like to

exit all right everybody that is a

banking program for some practice if you

would like a copy of this code I'll post

this in the comment section down below

and well yeah that's a banking practice

program in

C++ all right everybody in this video

we're going to create a game of rock

paper scissors let's create our function

declarations first Char get user

choice Char in this case would be the

return type we'll be returning a

character Char get

computer

Choice void there is no return type show

Choice there will be one parameter Char

Choice then the last function is void

choose winner there will be two

parameters Char player that's us Char

computer the computer's choice will be

determined randomly using a random

number generator let's define these

functions let's copy all of these after

the main function I will paste them then

add a set of curly braces after

each currently if I were to run this

program we do have some warning because

with these two functions get user choice

and get computer choice we're not

returning anything even though we stated

that we're returning a character just

for the time being I'm going to return

zero just so that those warnings go away

but we'll correct these momentarily so

we shouldn't have those warnings within

the main function we will declare two

characters one for player Char player

that's us Char computer that's the

opponent we will take our player then

assign this a value of whatever is

returned from the get user Choice

function then we need to fill in this

function within the get user Choice

function I will create a local variable

of player as well I'll create a message

to begin our game standard

output rock

paper

scissors game I'll add a new

line uh this part isn't necessary but

I'm just going to add a bunch of

asterisks

afterward just because I think it would

look cool underneath our title let's

list our choices standard

output the character

R for

rock new

line let's copy this

P for

paper s

for

scissors standard input

player I'm just going to test that this

works standard

output

Player rock paper scissors game R for

rock P for paper s for scissors I'll

pick r that would give us the character

R okay so we know that that

works I'm going to place some of this

code within a do while loop because the

user might not type in RP or

S so

do while

I'm going to stick my code within the do

while

loop I'm just going to add one more line

of

output choose one of the

following all right we'll continue this

while loop as long as our player does

not equal the character r

and

player does not equal the character

p and player does not equal the

character s then at the end of this

function we will return

player we can't escape this while loop

until we pick either r p or S that's how

this condition works Let's test

it rock paper SC game choose one of the

following R for rock P for paper s for

scissors uh I will pick W for

womo choose one of the following r p or

S uh I like the letter X nope can't pick

that uh let's go with s for scissors

okay s is a valid Choice okay that is

the get user Choice function that is

complete so I'm going to close out of

this function

after we assign our player variable

let's display the user's Choice standard

output your choice colon

space then we will invoke the show

Choice function show Choice then there

is one parameter we have to pass in a

choice as an argument we will pass in

our player that's a character within the

show Choice function I'm going to create

a switch

switch we're examining some value

against matching cases we'll examine our

choice our choice argument that we

receive if our choice matches the case r

what would we like to do I'm going to

display some output standard

output just rock then I'll add a new

line make sure to break

then

case P for

paper

standard

output paper I'll add a new

line then

break case s for

scissors standard

output scissors new line

then

break let's close out of this function

then test

it okay I'll type R for rock your choice

Rock P for paper your choice

paper s for scissors your choice

scissors okay the show Choice function

is done now we need to get the computer

Choice computer

equals get computer

Choice then we'll need to fill in this

function get computer choice right

here we'll need to generate a random

seed s

Rand pass in the time function then type

zero or null you may need to include

this header file at the top of your

program just in case this doesn't work

include C

time we'll generate a random number

between 1 and three and num equals Grand

function modulus 3 + 1 we'll examine

this number against matching

cases switch we're examining our num

the first case will be the number one if

our random number is one let's return

the character

R since we're returning a value we don't

necessarily need to add that break

statement we're already breaking when we

return so we can Emmit

this case

2 return the

character P for

paper case three

return s for scissors okay we can close

out of the get computer Choice function

that's all done back within the main

function let's display the computer's

Choice standard

output computer's

Choice we'll invoke the show Choice

function but pass in our

computer let's run it to test it I'll

pick R for rock your choice Rock the

computer's choice is paper let's try it

like two more

times okay we chose paper the computer

chose

Rock let's pick s for scissors your

choice scissors the the computer's

choice is also scissors okay so the

computer is picking a random Choice

that's good now we'll have to decide who

won at the end of our program we will

invoke the choose winner function pass

in our player as well as the

computer then within the choose winner

function let's create another

switch we will examine our player

against matching

cases if our player chooses Rock the

character R I think the best way to do

this would be to use if statements

within each

case if the player chooses Rock and if

the

computer chooses R for rock that means

there's a

tie I'll display that standard

output it's a

tie then I'll add a new

line else

if the

computer chooses paper that means we

lose standard

output you

[Music]

lose else well there's only one option

left Scissors because if the computer

didn't choose rock or paper that means

they pick scissors rock beats scissors

so let's display that the user

one you

win oh then be sure to to add a break at

the end to break out of the

switch this is the case if the player

chooses Rock Let's copy all of this

code paste it and let's move this over

now if the user chooses paper we have

some different results paper BS Rock

will change this line of output to

be you win if the user chooses paper and

the computer chooses paper that means

means it's a

tie it's a

tie if we choose paper and the computer

chooses scissors that means we lose you

lose one more

case if the player picks scissors and

the computer picks rock you

lose scissors beads

paper you win else

scissors ties with

scissors it's a tie and that is

everything so let's close this function

and run this

program okay I'll pick R for rock we

picked Rock the computer picked scissors

you

win P for

paper the computer also picked paper

it's a tie

I'll pick

scissors I picked scissors the computer

picked rock you lose well all right then

everybody that is a game of rock paper

scissors if you would like a copy of

this code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

a game of rock paper scissors in

C++ we have a big topic today I need to

discuss arrays an array is a data

structure that can hold multiple values

values are accessed by an index number

think of an array as kind of like a

variable that holds multiple values it's

a little more complicated than that but

that's a good way of thinking about them

perhaps we have the name of a car this

will be a standard string I will name

this car assign this a value of whatever

car that you like one car that I like is

a

Corvette then I will display whatever

our car is

standard

output

car so of course this car is a Corvette

we can transform this variable into an

array by making the following changes

after the variable name add a set of

square

brackets then enclose your values with a

set of curly

braces there we now have an array my

variable car is now an array now this

variable can hold multiple values

multiple cars kind of like it's a

parking garage separate each value with

a comma this time I'll add a

Mustang then a Camry now take a look at

this I will display

car now what the heck is this so this is

a memory address of where our array is

located like 123 Fake Street if I need

one of these elements one of these

values that's found within the array in

order to access it I have to do so by an

index number

after the array name I will add a set of

square brackets then an index number the

first element in an array has an index

of zero because computers always start

with zero and we have our Corvette it's

kind of like a parking spot number

that's why I went with this example of

cars if I need the next element within

my array I would access element number

one then I should probably add a new

line just to separate these new line

we have our Corvette and our Mustang

then we have our third element which

would have an index of two so we have

our three elements our Corvette our

Mustang and our Camry you can reassign

values too I'm going to change the first

element within this array take the array

name select an index number I'll set

this equal to a Camaro a Chevy Camaro

now at parking spot number zero we have

our Camaro then our Mustang than our

Camry I'm going to rename car as cars

just so people know that it's plural

although it's not necessary one thing

with the Rays is that they can only

contain values of the same data type

like I'll try and stick a number within

here number

one so our compiler doesn't like it that

there's a number in here with all these

strings so arrays should all be of the

same data type now if you don't know

what you want to place within an array

you can simply declare an array then

assign values later I'm going to declare

an array of cars and then later assign

some

values cars at index one will have our

Mustang cars at index

2 will be our

Camry see we still have an error though

array size missing in cars you can

declare an array then assign values

later we need to set a size to this

array it's a static data structure if

I'm only going to place three cars

within this array I'll set the size to

be three So within the square brackets

you can set an array size and this would

work the same you can declare an array

be sure to set the size and then assign

values later let's try one last example

I'm going to create an array of prices

these will be of the double data type

prices add a set of square brackets I'll

go ahead and assign these values right

away so I don't need to declare a size

explicitly make up some prices $5

$7.50

$9.99 then

$15 I'll display these prices standard

output prices I'll list an index number

of what element I'm trying to access the

first would be zero then I'll add a new

line

let's copy this line of code and paste

it a couple more times we have prices at

index zero that is the first element

then one 2 and

three and here are the prices so yeah

that's an array think of it as a

variable that can hold multiple values

it's a little more complicated than that

it's a type of data structure but that's

a good way of thinking about them to

change a variable into an array after

the variable name add a set of square

brackets place your values within a set

of curly braces that's if you're

assigning values right away or otherwise

you can set a size and then assign

values later that's another option so

yeah those are arrays your assignment is

to post an array in the comment section

down below and well yeah those are

arrays in

C++ you guys ready all right let's talk

about the size of operator the size of

operator determines the size in bytes of

a variable data type class objects Etc

whatever you would like to find the size

of you stick within the parentheses of

the size of operator here's an example

let's create a

double double GPA our GPA will be a

solid 2.5 to determine the size in bytes

of my variable or a data type I will

just place within the set of parentheses

I'll display this standard output

size of operator I would like to return

the size of my GPA variable then I'll

just add a

string byes new

line let's take a look the size of my

GPA variable is 8 bytes that's the

maximum size allocated to my double

variable if I was to replace GPA with a

data type such as double well this would

be the same 8 bytes this will be helpful

in the future when we begin working with

the

so let's try a couple other variables

I'll create a string standard string

name assign some

name then I will find the size of the

string size of

name the size of a string is 32 bytes

because a string really just holds an

address to where some text is located

the address of where the string of text

is located is 32 bytes even if I were to

change the size of the string bro code

is is awesome well this size is still

going to be the same 32 bytes because a

string is a reference data type let's

try a couple other examples how about a

character Char

grade my grade will be an F I will find

the size of this character

grade the size of a character is one

bite let's try a Boolean Boolean student

is somebody a student true or or false

I'll Place student within the size of

operator a Boolean variable also takes

one bite of memory this time let's find

the size of an array in byes I'll create

an array of

characters Char grades this will be an

array I'll set this equal to some

grades a

b

c d then F I'll place my array within

the size of

operator the size of this array grades

is 5 bytes remember that characters take

up one bite of memory an array of five

characters would be well five bytes we

can use the size of operator to

calculate how many elements are within

an array if we have the total size of

our array we could divide this by the

size of one

element size of grades at index of zero

or otherwise we can find the data

type we'll divide the size of my array

grades divided by the size of a

character so I should have these many

elements five elements within my array

of grades if I were to add one more

grade like an e even though that's not a

typical grade well then the total

elements within that array would be six

elements that's a useful trick to

calculate the size of an array how many

elements are within that array one more

this will be a bonus question I'll

create an array of

strings I'll name this

students we'll enter in some student

names such as

SpongeBob

Patrick then

Squidward to calculate how many strings

are within this array how many students

we have we can find the size of my array

students divided by the size of a

string I have three elements within this

array of students then I could add one

more and this equation should calculate

that I'll add

Sandy size of students divided by the

size of a string would give me four

elements so yeah that's the size of

operator everybody it will return the

size in bytes of a a variable data type

class objects all sorts of things it

will be really helpful when working with

arrays because we can determine the size

of an array but we'll get some practice

with that in the future and well yeah

that's the size of operator in

C++ all right guys in this video I'm

going to show you how we can iterate

over the elements of an array suppose we

have an array of students these will be

strings standard

string I'll name this array

students set the equal to some student

names pick a

few

SpongeBob

Patrick then

Squidward suppose I would like to

display all these students normally to

do that I would type standard output my

array followed by an index number so the

first student would be SpongeBob which

has an index of zero and my first

student is SpongeBob if I need to

display all of the elements of this

array I would have to one by one access

each

element then I'll just add a new

line we have SpongeBob Patrick and

Squidward if I need to display all of

the elements of an array a better

approach would be to use a for

Loop I'm going to type for parentheses

curly braces we'll need an index in I

I'll set this equal to is Zer because

the first element in our array has an

index of zero I'll continue this as long

as I is less than the length of our

array currently it's

three then increment I by

One during each iteration I would like

to display each element standard

output students now instead of an index

number like 0 1 2 whatever I'm going to

use my counter variable I students at

index of I during the first iteration I

will be zero then 1 then two once we

reach three we'll stop I'll add a new

line this for Loop will print the

elements of my

array SpongeBob Patrick Squidward

there's one issue with this though what

if we add another student such as

Sandy well this for Loop will stop once

I reach is three if we make any

adjustments to this array we would have

to go into our code and make some

changes such as setting this four Loop

so that we discontinue when I reaches

four this would work but it's not the

best solution for our stopping condition

in place of just setting I to be less

than some number let's calculate how

many elements are within this array to

do that we can use the size of

operator I'll type size of my array this

will give me the total size in byes of

my array to calculate the number of

elements I can divide size of students

by the size of the data type string or

even an element this will Loop through

all of the elements of this array

SpongeBob Patrick Squidward Sandy if we

change the number of elements well then

there's no need to touch this for Loop

it will calculate the size automatically

see now we just have SpongeBob and

Patrick let's create one last example

I'll create an array of

grades Char

grades we have an

A

B

C D then

F if I need to iterate over this array

of characters I would find the size of

my array grades divided by the size of a

character the character data type during

each iteration I will display grades at

index of I our

counter and this will display all of the

elements of this array so yeah that's

how to iterate over an array using a for

Loop in the next topic I will explain

the for each Loop which has different

syntax and well yeah that's how to

iterate over an array using a for Loop

in

C++ all right guys the for each Loop the

for each Loop is a loop that that eases

the traversal over an iterable data set

an array is an example of an iterable

data set suppose we're using a standard

for Loop and I have this array of

strings named students we have SpongeBob

Patrick and Squidward using a standard

for loop I would need three statements

an index a condition then we could

increment or decrement our

Index this does work but there is

another way of writing this using a for

each Loop there's less syntax than a

typical four Loop but it's less flexible

using a for Loop we can go forwards

backwards or even skip iterations of

something we're iterating over using a 4

each Loop we start at the beginning and

go to the end there's less flexibility

so let's change this to a 4 each

Loop first We'll add the data type of

what we're iterating over we're

iterating over

strings then we'll need a name for the

current element that we're on we have an

array of students let's name the current

element student colon then our iterable

data set which would be our

array string student colon students

during each iteration let's display

whatever the current element is which I

named

student then I'll add a new

line and there we go we have our three

students then you could change the

amount of students if you would like

let's add

Sandy now we have SpongeBob Patrick

Squidward Sandy let's try a different

example let's work with grades this time

these will be of the int data type int

grades equals make up some

grades

65 72 81 93 good enough the data type of

what we're iterating over is not a

string this time it is an INT integers

let's name each element simply grade

colon the name of my iterable data set

which would be my array grades for every

grade in grades let's display each

grade and here are the grades 65 72 81

93 so that's a 4 each loop it's a loop

that eases the traversal over an

iterable data set there's less syntax

invol D in a 4 each Loop but it's less

flexible if you just need to display the

elements of an array a 4 each Loop would

work perfect so yeah that's a 4 each

Loop everybody your assignment is to

post a 4 each Loop in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

the 4 each Loop in

C++ all right everybody so in this video

I'm going to show you how we can pass an

array to a function suppose we have an

array of prices these will be of the

double data type double prices straight

brackets equals just make up some prices

$49.99

$155

$75

$9.99 good enough we'll create a

function to find the sum of these prices

and print a total let's say double total

equals then I'll invoke a get total

function which we still need to declare

and Define so let's do that now we'll

return a double double get

total let's list the parameters we need

to accept an array of doubles

double prices then add a set of square

brackets for the parameter now when we

pass an array to a function you only

need to pass the array name you don't

need a set of square brackets then we'll

need a function declaration let's do

that before the main

function then at the end of my program I

will display the

total standard

output pick a currency uh let's pick a

dollar

sign then I will display the total

within the get total function I'm going

to declare a separate local instance of

a total

variable remember that variables can

have the same name as long as they're

within a different function so we have

double total I'm going to iterate over

my array using a for

Loop normally what we would do is say in

I equals 0 I would continue this as long

as I is less than then at this point we

would calculate the size of the array

but technically this isn't going to work

and I'll demonstrate why we have the

size of our array prices divided by the

size of either the data type or one of

the elements typically I like to use one

of the elements prices at index zero

then I will increment our counter by one

during each iteration within our for

Loop let's assign total equal to Total

plus prices at index of I or we could

shorten this to Total plus equals prices

at index of I at the end of our program

we will return whatever the total is now

this isn't going to work the way it's

written now here's why when we pass an

array to a function it KS into what's

known as a pointer which we haven't

discussed yet but we will in future

topics within this function we're not

working with an array anymore we're

working with a pointer that points to

the address of where the array begins

this function has no idea how big this

array is anymore we can't calculate how

many elements are within this array what

we could do is that when we invoke this

function we can pass in the array as

well as the size of the array since this

function no longer knows how big the

array is we can explicitly let theun

function know what the size is so let's

calculate what the size is int size

equals we can just copy all this

code paste

it now when we invoke this function I'm

going to pass the size as a second

argument then we'll need a matching set

of

parameters in

size be sure to add that with your

function declaration too if you have

one I would like to continue this for

loop as long as I is less than size now

this should work let's verify that yep

and our total is

$150 3 in conclusion when you pass an

array to a function you only have to

pass the array name you don't need a set

of square brackets when you do so

however when a function receives an

array it decays into a pointer and the

function no longer knows what the size

of the array is so we could pass that as

an additional argument to let the

function know what the size is which we

could then use to you know iterate over

the array so that's how to pass an array

to a function your assignment is to post

a function that accepts an array as an

argument in the comment section down

below and well yeah that's how to pass

an array to a function in

C++ hey welcome back so in this video

I'm going to show you how we can search

an array for an element let's create an

array of numbers something simple int

numbers this will be an array then

assign some numbers I'll just assign the

numbers 1 through 10 because I'm basic

like

that there 1 through 10 we'll probably

need this later I'm going to calculate

the size of the array int size equals

size of my array numbers divided by the

size of one of the elements I'll just

pick the first element

we'll need to keep track of an index

like what index did we find something

that we're searching for INT index I'll

declare this variable but we don't need

to assign it as well as int my num my

num will be the number that we're

looking

for let's accept some user input we'll

create a prompt standard

output enter element to search for

I'll add a new line cuz I

can

standard

input my

num I'm going to create a function that

will search an array for us let's define

that function outside of the main

function this function will return an

integer that will be our index the

return type is in I'll name this

function search

array there's a couple par parameters

we'll have three parameters an array of

integers integer

array the size of the array int size

then some element that we're searching

for INT element then we should probably

add a function declaration at the

top that's good this function will

return an integer the index of the

element that we're searching for we will

take our index variable set this equal

to then I'm going to invoke the search

array function that we just declared but

we need three matching Arguments for the

three parameters that we have set up an

array a size and an element we'll pass

in our array

numbers the size of the array that we

already

calculated and the element that we're

searching for we're searching for my

num within the search array function we

will iterate from the beginning of the

array to the end and see if there's any

matches we can do that with the for

Loop we'll begin at zero in I equals z

that's our

index I will continue this as long as I

is less than the size of the array that

we're passing in as an argument then

increment our index by

one this would be technically a linear

search we'll start at the beginning and

check every value until we reach the end

so let's check using an if statement

within the for Loop if our array we did

name this array numbers but remember

that you can rename parameters numbers

is technically our array if our array

that we

receive at index of I that's our counter

is equal to the element that we're

searching

for we will return whatever the index is

I if we search through this entire array

and don't find that element that we're

searching for will

return1 in

programming1 serves as a sentinel value

if you see NE 1 that typically means

that something wasn't found well return

either I

or1 then assign it to this index

variable within the main function using

an if statement we'll check to see what

that value

is if our index does not equal -1 that

means the element that we're searching

for is somewhere within our

array let's display the index standard

output my

num is at

index whatever the index variable

is

else standard

output my num

is not in the

array okay let's see if this actually

works enter element to search for let's

search for one one is at index zero

remember that computers always start

with zero enter an element to search for

let's search for 10 10 is at index 9

enter an element to search for

42069 42069

is not in the

array for additional practice let's

search through an array of strings such

as food we'll create an array of

strings I'll rename numbers as Foods

then think of some food that you

like

pizza

hamburger hot

dog in size equals the size of foods

divided by one of the elements of foods

let's rename my num as my food that's

the food that we're searching

for and that will be of the string data

type in place of CN when working with

strings let's use getline because the

user input may contain spaces

standard get

line standard

input my food

within the search array function that we

created we will pass our array Foods the

size can stay the same then pass in my

food that's what we're searching for

within the if else statements replace my

num with my

food then we'll need to change the data

types of this function we're accepting

an array of

strings replace int with string do that

with your element as

well then we need to change the function

declaration at the top of our

program okay we can now search through

an array of

strings enter element to search for

let's search for pizza pizza is at index

zero hamburger hamburger is at index

one hot

dog hot dog is at index 2 then let's

search for something that's not within

this

array what about sushi

Sushi is not in the array yeah everybody

that is how to search through an array

this would technically be a linear

search you begin at the first element of

an array check to see if the values are

equal if they're not equal you move to

the next element until you reach the end

and that's basically it if you would

like a copy of this code I'll post this

in the comment section down below and

well yeah that's how to search through

an array in

C++ hey everybody in this topic I'm

going to to show you how we can sort an

array first I'll explain the logic

behind it then we'll write a C++ program

to actually handle it we'll use a

standard bubble sort it's an easy

sorting algorithm to write although

there are more efficient sorting

algorithms we're still learning so let's

stick with a bubble sort so with a

bubble sort we begin at index zero the

beginning of our array we'll examine the

element directly to the right if the

element on the left is larger than the

element on the right we need to swap

these two elements I will take this

element move it within some temp storage

like a temporary variable take the

element on the right move it to the left

take whatever is within temp place it

within that opening again we take our

value examine the element to the right

if it's larger we swap

them then we would just repeat this

until we reach the end

so that would be one element we would

repeat this process with the rest of the

elements now for the next iteration one

is not greater than 9 so we leave it

alone then we check the next element 9

is greater than two we would swap these

two

values I'll speed up the footage

for

that is a quick demonstration of a

bubble sort so let's actually write this

in code

now okay let's create an array this will

be an array of

integers make up some numbers make sure

they're not in

order let's let's calculate the size of

the array and size

equals size of our array divided by the

size of one of the

elements at the end of our program we

will iterate over our array I'll use a

for each Loop in element in Array I will

display using standard output every

element then I think I'll separate each

with the space

okay and here's our array obviously

unsorted so let's change that I'll

create a sort function void

sort there will be two parameters an

integer

array int size let's add a function

declaration at the top of our

program before we print our array let's

invoke the sort function that we just

created pass in our array as well as the

size there we go okay so let's head to

our sort function what we'll need to do

is iterate over our array once for every

element that's within the array we'll

need the help of a temporary variable to

swap some values then we'll need nested

Loops for in I equals z we'll continue

this as long as I is less than the size

of our array minus one the reason that

the condition is size minus one is

because we don't need to compare the

last element to anything the larger

values will naturally gravitate towards

the end of the array increment I by one

then we'll need a nested for

Loop let's use index J because I is

already

taken now our condition is going to be

size - i - one once we place the larger

elements all the way to the right they

should already be in order we don't need

to sort any elements that are already

sorted then what we have to do is use an

if state statement to check to see if

the current element that we're on array

at index of J is greater than the

element on the right array at index of

J + 1 if the element on the left is

larger than the element on the right we

just have to swap those two values we'll

take temp which we declared up here

equals array at index of J array array

at index of J equals array at index of J

+ 1 then lastly array at index of J + 1

equals whatever is within Temp and that

should be it let's run

this yeah and our array is now sorted in

ascending order so if you need

descending order within this if

statement use less

than and now this array is in descending

order well okay then everybody that's

one way in which you can sort an array

we used what's known as a bubble sort

it's easy to write but it's not as

efficient as some other algorithms that

are out there this is a good one for

beginners if you would like a copy of

this code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

how to sort an array using

C++ hey everybody in this topic I'm

going to explain the fill function The

Fill function fills a range of elements

with with a specified value there's

three arguments a beginning address of a

data structure an ending address then

some value suppose we have an array of

strings standard string I'll name this

array

Foods I'll give this a maximum size of

10 elements then I'll go ahead and fill

this array with the same food I'll fill

all 10 elements with the word

pizza so that's one 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

so these all have the same value now

this really isn't practical although it

does work just to demonstrate I'll

display the elements with the for each

loop we're displaying strings for every

food element in my array Foods I would

like to

display each food element then I'll add

a new line so we have 10 elements all

filled with pizza you know this does

work but it's not practical to

initialize all of these elements

manually what if we had an array of 100

elements I would have to type the word

Pizza 100 times there's a few Solutions

one of which would be the fill function

which would make this process a lot

easier I'm going to declare this array

but not fill it in quite yet we have an

array of 100 elements to store strings

I'm going to fill all 100 elements with

pizza so we type fill parentheses now we

need the beginning address of a data

structure well that's simply the array

name then an ending address so that

would be the second argument we would

type the array name plus the size of the

array so plus 100 in this case then some

value I'll fill this array with the word

Pizza 100

times there we

go all 100 elements have been filled

with pizza now if you do change the size

of this array let's say we have 150

elements you would have to go and change

that within the fill method too what I

would do in place of adding some number

to my array I will add a size variable

foods will be index of size and then we

can set some size actually better yet

let's make this a constant constant int

size then I'll set this to be

100 Foods plus size so again all 100

elements are filled with pizza now

here's a few exercises if I'm filling

the first half of this array with pizza

we have our beginning address then I

need to find the halfway point Foods

plus size / two I'll just go ahead and

put that within some parentheses for

clarity then if I were to run this the

first half of this array contains

pizza and the second half contains

nothing it's empty to fill the second

half of this array with hamburgers I

would invoke The Fill function

again we will begin where we left

off Foods plus size / two the ending

address would be Foods plus size we will

fill the second half of this array with

hamburgers there we are the first half

is all Pizza the second half is all

hamburgers here's a challenge round

we'll fill the first third of our array

with pizza the second third will be

hamburgers and the last third will be

hot dogs

but 100 doesn't divide by three evenly

just to make this simple I'll set our

array to be 99 elements we're filling

the first third of our array with pizza

size divided 3 hamburgers will begin at

Foods plus size ID 3 and end at size / 3

* 2 then we'll invoke The Fill function

one more time we'll continue where we

left

off and we will end at Foods plus size

and fill this with hot

dogs here we

go so we have pizza hamburgers then hot

dogs so yeah that is the fill function

we can fill a range of elements with a

specified value it's great if you have a

lot of elements to work with and you

don't manually want to type all the

values if you would like a copy of this

code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

the The Fill function in

C++ hey welcome back everybody in this

video I'm going to explain one of a few

ways in which we can accept user input

and place it within an array there's no

one- siiz fits-all way to do it I'll

show you one way that's good for

beginners let's begin by creating an

array I'll create an array of strings

named

Foods we're not going to be assigning

values to this array quite yet that's

where the user input will come in if

we're not assigning values right away

when we initialize this array we'll have

to specify a size for the time being

let's say five something small now

arrays they're static data structures

while our program is running we can't

change the size of this array the max

size is stuck at five and that might be

a problem if we would like to enter in

more than five items we'll discuss

dynamic memory in a future video then

I'm going to calculate the size of this

array in size equals size of my array

Foods divide by the size of one of the

elements Foods at index of

zero let's create a for Loop to iterate

over the elements of this

array for in I equals 0 we'll continue

this as long as I is less than the size

of our array then increment I by One

let's create a

prompt standard

output enter a food would you like then

I'll display the number to show the user

what number we're

on I then I'm just going to add a colon

at the

end if we're working with strings we

should probably use the getline function

just because what the user enters may

contain spaces get line standard

input we'll place our input within our

array

Foods at the index of I whatever we're

currently on our counter at the end of

our program let's display a

message you like the following

food I'll use a for each Loop to iterate

over the elements of this array we list

the data

type a name for the current

element food in foods

let's display standard

output whatever the food is I'll add a

new

line and that should be good now take a

look at this enter a food you like we're

on number zero I'm going to add plus one

to I when we display our prompt the user

is not going to be sure why there's a

number zero but we know that's the

beginning index of an array so I'm just

going to change that here enter a food

you like we're on number one

pizza hamburger

hot dog

Ramen

Sushi and these are the five elements

you like the following food pizza

hamburger hot dog Ramen Sushi okay

that's pretty good so far suppose the

user only wants to enter in three

elements not all five we should add some

way to escape out of this for Loop based

on some user input I'm going to add this

line enter a food you like

or Q to quit

now check this out if the user types in

Q we would like to

exit if Foods at index of I is equal to

the string Q then I would like to break

out of this for Loop the user is done

entering an input but there's a problem

with

this enter a food you like or CU to quit

number one pizza

hamburger hot dog now I'm going to press

Q to

quit we don't have any more prompts to

enter in food we went to the results you

like the following food pizza hamburger

hot dog Q I'd rather not put the letter

Q in my Foods array I'm going to create

a temporary variable just to hold some

user input this will be of the string

data type standard string I'll name this

temp meaning temporary it's a a

temporary variable in place of directly

putting my user input into my Foods

array I'll place it temporarily within

my variable temp I'm going to check if

temp is equal to

Q else will take Foods at index of I set

the SQL to Temp that way we're not

directly assigning our user input to our

array until we check what it is if the

user types in Q to quit we don't want to

put that within our Foods array so let's

try this again it should be better enter

a food you like or C to

quit Pizza hamburger hot dog Q to

quit Okay Pizza hamburger hot dog well

the letter Q isn't here but when we

display what's within the array we have

these empty spaces we did not assign a

value to these if one of our elements is

empty I don't want to display it so we

can make this following change in place

of for each Loop let's use a standard

for Loop in I equals

0 now here's the condition we're used to

saying I is less than size right I'd

like to propose a change we'll write a

different condition I will check if the

current element is empty Foods at index

of I dot empty function then we'll add

the not logical operator we'll continue

our for loop as long as theur current

element is not empty then we'll add the

statement increment I by one we'll

display our array Foods at index of I

this for Loop shouldn't display any

elements that are

empty

Pizza

hamburger hot dog Q to quit yeah and we

only have three elements Pizza hamburger

hot dog one disadvantage of arrays is

that they have a limited size they're

static once we declare a size we can't

change it we're limmited to only storing

five foods you could declare a larger

size but you may be wasting memory if a

user doesn't want to type in all 10 so

in future topics we'll need to discuss

both dynamic memory and vectors which

should be coming up sometime in the

future so yeah that is one way out of

many ways to enter in user input into an

array if you would like a copy of this

code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

how to enter user input into an array

using

C++ hey everybody in this topic I'm

going to explain multi-dimensional

arrays more specifically 2D arrays it's

an array made up of separate arrays

they're useful because they can

represent a grid or Matrix of data with

rows and columns here's an example I'll

create a two-dimensional array of cars

car names the data type will be string I

will name this array cars with arrays

they have one set of square brackets but

if you're creating a two-dimensional

array you need two sets of square

brackets the first set of square

brackets is for the number of rows let's

say three in this example the second set

of square brackets corresponds to the

number of columns if we have three rows

and four columns 3 * 4 is 12 so that

would give us 12 elements if you're

initializing your 2D array right away

you don't necessarily need to set a row

size but you do need a column size I'll

just set the amount of columns to be

three just something small okay so let's

fill in the first array this first row

will be cars manufactured by Ford I'll

add a

Mustang then a Ford

Escape then maybe a Ford

F150 okay this is our first array I'm

going to create a second array after the

first array I'll add comma what I like

to do I like to organize my 2D array

kind of like it's a grid so now we have

a second array this next array will be

cars manufactured by

Chevrolet I'll pick a

Corvette then an

equinox and a

Silverado let's add one last

array these will be cars manufactured by

Dodge

Challenger

Durango Ram

1500 all right now to finish this

two-dimensional array we will enclose

all of these inner arrays with another

set of curly braces then add a semicolon

to the end that is our two-dimensional

array you can see that there's rows and

columns in this example each row

corresponds to a

manufacturer so it's kind of like a grid

a matrix then if you were to access one

of these elements you need two indices

just to demonstrate let's display all of

them standard output

cars I need to select the row number

then the column number row zero column

zero let's see what C that

is I'm just going to add a space between

these

elements okay row zero column zero

that's my Mustang row 0 column 0 that's

Mustang let's print the next element

that would be row0 column

one that is my Ford Escape row zero

column 1 I'm just going to zoom out

there then we have row zero column

2 that's the Ford F-150 I'm going to

display a new line character now we are

on Row one so let's copy these

paste

them Row one column zero Row one column

1 Row one column

two so this next row is our cars

manufactured by Chevrolet we have our

Corvette our Equinox then our

Silverado then we will display row

two row two column zero row two column 1

row row two column

2 and these are the cars manufactured by

Dodge we have our Challenger Durango Ram

1500 so yeah you can see that a

two-dimensional array is kind of like a

grid made up of rows and columns now if

we need to iterate over a

two-dimensional array and display the

elements here's one way in which we can

do that we can use nested Loops but just

to make it easy I'm going to calculate

the amount of rows and columns that we

have let's begin with the rows if rows

equals size of my array

cars divided by the size of one of the

elements cars at index Zer is

good then to calculate the amount of

columns that we have we could do

something like this int columns equals

the size of cars at index of zero

divided by the size of one of the

elements so remember there's two indices

this time 0 Z is good in this example we

should have three rows as well as three

columns now let's create a for Loop to

iterate over the

rows in I equals z i will continue this

as long as I is less than the number of

rows that we have then increment I by

one I'm going to

display cars at index of I just for the

time being then for now I'm just going

to add a new line between

each so if I was to display cars at

index

I that should give us three memory

addresses one address for every inner

array this memory address is for the

first array then the second

array then the third

array what I need to do now to get the

elements within each array is to create

an inner loop

let's use an in four Loop to iterate

over each element within each

array int J because I is already taken

set this equal to zero we will continue

this for loop as long as J is less then

the number of columns that we have

increment J by

one now I'm going to

display cars and there's two

indices I

then

J I'm going to display a space between

each of

these okay now we have one long line of

text so once we escape the inner for

loop I would just like to print a new

line I'll add standard

output new line

character okay and here's our

two-dimensional array the first row are

for cars Manu factured by Ford then

Chevrolet then Dodge that's how to

iterate over a two-dimensional array you

have the outer loop that's in charge of

the rows the inner loop which is in

charge of the columns so that's a

two-dimensional array everybody it's

just an array where each element is its

own separate array you have two indices

the first for the rows the second for

the columns to access one of the

elements you have to specify the row

then the column that element is found so

those are two-dimensional arrays your

assignment is to post a two-dimensional

array in the comment section down below

and well yeah those are two dimensional

arrays in

C++ hey everybody in this video we're

going to create a quiz game using C++

let's begin by creating an array of

questions these will be of the string

data type I will name this array

questions and then let's think of some

questions really add any questions that

you want here's a few that come to mind

for

me what year was

C++

created okay that is the first question

I'll add an additional

string question

two who invented

C++ third

question what is

the

predecessor of

C++ and I couldn't think of a fourth

question so I'm going to ask is the

earth flat good enough with each

question there will be four

corresponding options I think a

two-dimensional array would be perfect

for this this will be a two-dimensional

array of strings named

options we'll need to set the number of

columns four columns is

good this first array will be for the

options for the first

question a will be

1969

B

1975 C 1985 1985 is the correct

answer d

1989 now we have our next array who

invented

C++ gido van

rossom he's the creator of python so

that's not the correct

answer

bearn

stro strip I'm sorry if I mispronounce

your name dude hopefully you're not

watching right now B is the correct

answer in this

case C

John

karmac

D Mark

Zuckerberg we're on question

three what is the predecessor of

C++ the correct answer is C that would

be option A

C+ C minus

minus or

b++ okay last

question is the earth

flat

yes no

sometimes what's

Earth all right then I just need to

surround all of these arrays with

another set of curly

braces and there is our two-dimensional

array named options to hold all of the

options for our questions we'll need to

create an answer key next this will be

an array of characters

answer key array

equals here are the correct

answers

C

B

A then

B

1985 bejn

strup C the language see that is and no

the Earth is not flat I looked it up on

Wikipedia just now let's calculate the

size of our questions how many questions

do we have

in size equals the size of our array

questions divided by the size of one of

the elements questions at

index0 we'll create a character to hold

our

guess int score to hold the

score now we'll need to iterate over our

questions for let me move down

here in I equals z we'll continue this

as long as I is less than the size of

our array the size of questions this

would effectively be the amount of

questions that we have then I'm going to

increment I by one we will iterate once

through all of the questions we

have standard

output let's access the string that's

within question questions at index

I I'll add a new

line just for some text decoration I'm

going to add a bunch of asterisks before

and after the

question so let's get rid of

this I think that'll look pretty

cool there we go then we'll need to

iterate over our 2D array

we'll use an in four Loop for that we'll

need a different index I is already

taken let's pick J in J equals z we'll

continue this as long as J is less than

now we'll need to calculate how many

elements are within each

array so we can do that with size

of our options array at index of I

divided by the size

of options and there's two indices

here I then zero then we will increment

J by

one we will display our options standard

output options there's two indices I

then J I'll add a new

line so if I were to run this this

should display all of the questions and

all of the

options yeah here we are what year was

C++ created who invented

C++ what is the predecessor of C++ is

the earth flat after all of the options

are laid out we will accept some user

input standard

input we will place the user's input

within guess then just in case the user

types in something that's lowercase like

a lowercase C we're looking for Capital

C so let's take the user's guess then

make it uppercase guess equals two upper

pass in

guess so that will capitalize the

character the user enters

in then let's check to see if the user's

guess is equal to the answer we'll need

to access the answer

key at index of I that's the current

numbered question if those two values

are the same we will display correct

I'll add a new

line then increment the user score score

Plus+ else the user's guess is not

correct standard

output

wrong then we will display the correct

answer standard

output answer colon space

we'll access the answer key at index of

I then I'll add a new

line okay let's drive this so far what

year was C++

created C who invented C++ that would be

B what is the predecessor of

C++ that is C the language C but it's

option A

is the earth flat what's Earth

D okay wrong answer B okay so we know

that we can cycle through the

questions outside of the for Loop we

will calculate the player score so right

here I'll display the word results

standard

output

results I'll add a new line actually now

that I think of it I'm going to steal

some of these text

decorations let's make it look

pretty something like this would look

cool but not

necessary standard

output

correct

guesses then we will display the current

score add a new line

standard

output number of

questions that is simply the size of our

array add a new

line then we will calculate a percentage

what percent of the questions did they

get

right

score score divided by size

times 100 then we'll add

percent so at first this isn't going to

work because we're using integer

division but I'll explain that

momentarily about type casting uh so

let's run this

once let's say A B C D correct guesses

one number of questions four uh our

score was 0% even though we got one

ready all right we'll need to add a cast

to the diviser let's cast size as a

double to hold that decimal

portion then this should

work A B C D correct guesses one number

of questions four our score was 25% now

let's go for 100 remember that the

correct answers are CB a b 1985 bejn

strp the language C but that's option A

is the earth flat no B correct guesses

four number of questions four score 100%

well yeah everybody that is a quiz game

you can make in C++ you can impress your

friends or have your friends take the

quiz you know you can change your

questions around if you want if you

would like a copy of this code I'll post

this in the comment section down below

and that is a quiz game written using

C++

hey everybody Welcome to the exciting

world of memory addresses a memory

address is a location in memory where

data is stored in C++ a memory address

can be accessed with an Amper sand known

as the address of operator suppose we

have some varibles I'll create a

string the variable name will be well

name assign this a string of text I'll

create int age set equal to some

value then a Boolean Boolean student

I'll set that to be true a variable is a

container for some data but these

variables need to exist somewhere well

they exist in your computer's memory at

a given address we can find that address

with the address of operator I'll

display that standard output I would

like to display the address of name then

I'll just add a new

line here's the address of my name

variable in my computer's memory it's a

bunch of weird letters and numbers well

this is a hexadecimal address every time

we run this program that number is

likely to

change let's display the addresses of

agent

student address of age address of

student here are the memory addresses

again all in heximal so these are kind

of like street address es hey for fun

let's decode these to decimal you can

easily find tools online to convert

heximal to

decimal let's see what these numbers

are here are the heximal memory

addresses but converted to decimal

they're like house numbers different

data types take up more or less room

than other data types if we look at the

distance between my name variable and

age well that has a gap of four memory

addresses but the gap between my age and

student variables is only one because

well booleans only take up one bite of

memory that's one of the reasons we use

data types we need to know how much

memory we need to allocate to fit a

certain value if we're working with a

Boolean variable well we only need one

bite of memory that's why the distance

between the memory address of age and

student is only 1 40 - 39 is 1 integers

take up four bytes of memory 44 4 - 40

is 4 4 bytes so that's an introduction

to memory addresses it's going to be

helpful in the next topic when we

discuss pointers if you would like a

copy of this code I'll post this in the

comment section down below and that is

an introduction to memory addresses in

C++ all right everybody so I'm going to

explain the differences between pass by

value and pass by reference in this

example we'll swap two variables suppose

we have two imaginary cups

I'll name the first cup x x will contain

Kool-Aid then we have cup Y which

contains water I need to swap these two

values we'll need the help of a

temporary

variable string temp to swap two

variables we would assign temp = to

x x =

y y = temp let's display these variables

standard

output

X the variable

X I'll add a new

line let's copy this paste

it y the variable y this should

work X now contains water y contains

Kool-Aid now check this out what if we

create a function to swap two variables

for us

the return type will be void I'll name

this function swap there will be two

parameters string

X string y let's copy this section of

code delete it then paste it within the

swap function then you'll need a

function declaration at the top of your

program then we will invoke this

function swap pass our arguments X and

Y let's see what

happens okay what the heck X still

contains Kool-Aid y still contains water

these values weren't switched within my

variables X and Y even though we invoked

this function so why didn't it work well

that's because normally when we pass a

variable to a function we're passing by

value when we invoke this function we're

creating copies of the original values

what we have now are two copies of the

variable X X and Y and all we're doing

is switching the two copies and not the

original values so that's pass by value

we're creating copies of the arguments

if I need to change the original values

of these variables I could instead pass

by reference a reference as in a memory

address an address in your computer's

memory where a value is located I will

prefix the address of operator which is

an ampersand to these parameter names

then add that to your function

declaration as well now let's see what

happens yeah those two variables were

switched X contains water y contains

Kool-Aid when we passed by value we

created copies of X and Y with the

parameters when we use the address of

operator we're passing memory addresses

to where the original X and Y variables

are located and then swapping the values

just to reinforce this idea let's revert

to passing by value I'm going to display

the address of X and Y then within our

SW op function let's get rid of this

code then I will also display the

addresses of X and

Y see we have four different addresses

our original X variable has a different

memory address than the one that's

within the function same thing goes with

Y these two addresses are different we

have two x variables and two y variables

originally within that swap function we

were switching the values of the X and Y

copies if we instead pass by reference

let's use that address of operator

again well now X and Y are referring to

the same place they have the same memory

addresses that's why the swap function

worked when we passed by reference in

place of pass by value so that's the

main difference between pass by value

and pass by reference you should use

pass by reference as often as possible

unless you have a reason to pass by

value if you would like a copy of this

code I'll post this in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

the main difference between pass by

value and pass by reference in

C++ hey everyone in this topic I'm going

to explain const parameters a const

parameter is a parameter that is

modified with a const keyword that makes

it effectively readon there's a couple

reasons why you might want to declare a

const parameter your code is more secure

within a function and it conveys the

intent to other programmers it's

especially useful for references and

pointers here's an example of const

parameter an action I have standard

string name assign your first

name then in age whatever your age

is then suppose I have a function to

print my info void print info and there

will be two

parameters standard string name int age

be sure to add a function declaration if

you're missing

it then if I need to call this function

I would invoke the function name pass in

my arguments name

age then we can print our info standard

output

name standard output

age this of course does what you expect

it prints our name and our age to make

this function more secure we can instead

use con parameters that means that we

can't change the values that we receive

name and age in this case just as a test

let's set name equal to an empty space

and age equals z I don't want this to be

able to happen at all now when I run

this we don't have a name and we don't

have an age to make these parameters

readon we can precede the parameters

with that const keyword const string

name const int age and you would

probably want to add that to your

function declaration as

well just to display

intent there we have an error assignment

of readon parameter age and name is

somewhere up here but I don't feel like

reading all that when we pass our string

and our integer as arguments what we're

doing is effectively making a copy of

name and age technically we're not

modifying the original variables in this

case using the const keyword when we

pass a variable by value isn't really

that big of a deal but it at least

conveys intent if we were working with

reference data

types now we'll pass by reference well

now it's a bigger deal we don't want

anybody modifying the original name and

age variables all right everybody those

are const parameters they are parameters

Modified by the con keyword that

effectively make them read only within a

function your code is more secure and it

conveys intent it tells other

programmers hey don't mess with these

values they're useful with references so

that no nobody can change the value

found at that reference then in the case

of pointers nobody can change the

address of where a pointer is pointing

to so yeah those are const parameters in

C++ hey everybody in this topic we're

going to create a program to validate if

a credit card number is valid or not to

do so we'll need to utilize The Loon

algorithm which I've broken into these

steps if you need some test credit card

numbers you can always Google them I

found a bunch on this website let's just

take this one for example

and to make this more readable I'll

divide this number into groups of

four step one we double every second

digit from right to left if the double

number is two digits split them I'm only

concerned with every second digit from

right to left so we can eliminate some

of these that we won't be

using then we're going to double these

numbers so two doubled is four

9 doubled is 18 since we have the number

18 that's two digits we need to split

them we'll split 18 to one and

8 then six doubled is 12 we'll split

that step two we need to add all of

these numbers together to create a

sum the sum is 29 step three add all odd

number digits from right to left with

the original number so now we're only

concerned with the odd

numbers then we just add these numbers

together no need to double

them the sum is 21 step four we sum the

results of steps two and steps three 29

9 + 21 that equals 50 step five if step

four is divisible by 10 that number is

valid we could say our result modulus 10

if that number is divisible by zero that

number is valid 50 is divisible by 10 so

that number is valid we'll create a

program that will do all of this for

us let's create our functions we'll need

three int get digit

the parameter will be a constant integer

that I will name

number int we'll need to sum the odd

digits the parameter is const standard

string card

number let's copy this paste it sum even

digits the parameter is the same

let's copy these functions and add some

declarations we do need to return

something otherwise we'll get a warning

for the time being I'm just going to

return zero as a

placeholder okay let's begin with the

main function we'll need a credit card

number that will be a string standard

string card

number then int result and I will set

that equal to zero right away okay we'll

prompt the user to enter in their credit

card number standard

output enter a credit card

number standard

input card

number result equals will invoke the sum

even digits

function pass in our card number

plus some odd digits pass in our card

number we'll need to fill in these

functions let's begin with some even

digits we can get rid of this I'll

create a local variable named sum to

keep track of the sum what we'll need to

do is iterate over our card number in

reverse order we can treat a string as

an array of characters and we can

iterate over that so we'll need a for

Loop and we will iterate over this card

number in reverse order starting from

the end we'll need an index in I equals

then we'll need to find the size of our

card number there's a built-in function

for that card number do size now arrays

they always start with zero so we're

going to subtract one however if we're

summing the even digits beginning from

the right we'll need the second to last

digit so that would actually be -2 the

very last digit would be minus1 our

index I will begin from the second to

last position I would like to continue

this for loop as long as I is less than

or equal to

zero then we will decrement I by 2 i - =

2 because we need every even digit so we

will take sum plus equals then invoke

the get digit

function get digit within the get digit

function as an argument we're going to

pass in card number at index of

itimes 2 however there's one more thing

that we'll need to do with card number

at index of I we will subtract the

character Zero and here's why we're

currently working with a string of

characters you can also treat a string

as an array of characters each character

according to the aski table has an

Associated integer value a decimal value

if I'm passing one of these characters

as an argument to my get digit function

we'll treat that character as if it was

its decimal equivalent according to the

asky table the character Zero has a

decimal value of 48 the character 1 is

49 2 is 50 then all the way up to 9

which has a decimal value of 57 so if

I'm passing in the character at index of

I what we'll end up working with is the

decimal representation of that character

if we subtract the character Zero or its

equivalent 48 that would give us a range

of numbers 0 through 9 for example the

decimal equivalent of the character 9 is

57 57 minus 48 would be 9 you could

subtract either 48 or the character Zero

that would give us numbers 0 through 9

according to the asky table then we're

multiplying that number by two

then at the end we will return whatever

the sum is let's fill in this get digit

function within the get digit function

the digit that we're working with was

doubled whatever number we passed in it

may take two digits for example like 9 *

2 is 18 we need to split those two

numbers to get 1 and8 so I'm going to

return number modulus

10

plus number

ID 10 modulus 10 that will split the two

numbers for example let's say our number

that we're passing in as an argument is

18 9 * 2 18 modulus 10 would give us

8 18 / 10 that would give us 1 since

we're using integer Division 1 modulus

10 is

1 8 + 1 is 9

then we're just returning that number

nine okay that is the get digit function

then we need to sum the odd digits and

really we could just copy all this then

paste

it but there's a couple changes to make

in I equals card number. size function

minus one we need to begin at the end

and then sum plus equals card number

minus

0 when summing the odd digits there's no

need to double the odd digits that's

only with the even digits and that is

all the functions let's close out of

these so we'll have a result the sum of

the even digits plus the sum of the odd

digits if result is divisible by 10 that

number is

valid

if

result modulus

10 is equal to

zero then that number is valid standard

output card

number is

valid

else card number is not

valid okay let's try this I'm going to

enter in that original number that we

worked with that Discover card

okay enter a credit card number I'm

going to paste this hit

enter that number is valid let's try

that

again so I'm going to enter in the same

card number except I'll add one to the

end that number is not valid hey if you

have your own credit cards feel free to

try them too and see if it works all

right everybody that is a credit card

validation program most for practice if

you would like a copy of this code I'll

post this in the comment section down

below please be sure that you do not

enter in your own credit card into the

comment section and well yeah that is a

credit card validation program using

C++ all right everybody we finally made

it to pointers a pointer is just a

variable that stores a memory address of

another variable that's it the reason

that we use pointers is because well

sometimes it's just easier to work with

an address here's an example I have a

stack of maybe 20 pizzas that I'm going

to give out for free to my neighborhood

instead of going around house to house

carrying the free pizza and handing it

out it's a lot easier to go door too and

tell people where the pizza is located

hey there's free pizza at my house at

this address come and get some and

that's one of the uses of pointers

sometimes it's easier to just work with

an address I'll tell people where the

free pizza is rather than carry it

around with me so when working with

pointers need to use the address of

operator which is an ampersand as well

as the D reference operator which is an

asterisk let's begin with the name I'll

create a pointer Twi a name standard

string name assign your first

name then we'll create a pointer to name

where is my name located in my

computer's memory to create a pointer it

should be of the same data type as the

variable it's pointing

to I'm creating a pointer to a string

this pointer will be a of the string

data type then type asterisk that D

reference operator then a common naming

convention for pointers is you type P

then the variable name but I'm going to

make the first letter uppercase I will

set this pointer equal to the address of

that name

variable and there we go we have a

pointer so if I was to display this

pointer standard

output P name

my pointer contains this value it

contains a memory address as its value

to access the value at this address you

would use the dfference

operator I'm accessing the value of that

address that's stored within this

pointer which contains my first name by

using this D reference operator I'm

accessing the value that's at this given

address which contains my first name

let's create a couple other pointers

let's create a variable age int age

equals make up some

age I'll create a pointer to age the

data type of the pointer should be the

same as the variable int D reference

operator P age equals the address of

age then let's

display whatever value is is located at

the address that's stored within my

pointer of

pH so we have my first name and then an

age I think I'm just going to add a new

line real

quick going back to that analogy with

the free pizzas I'll create an

array an array of

strings I'll name this array free

pizzas I'll give this a size of five

we have pizza

1 Pizza 2 Pizza 3 Pizza

4 then Pizza

5 like I said in my example it's a lot

easier instead of carrying around five

free pizzas house to house giving away

Pizza I can just tell people where the

pizza is located I'll give them an

address I'll create a pointer to this

array we'll use the same data type we're

storing

strings D reference operator P free

pizzas now I'm going to attempt to set

this to the address of free

pizzas now we're going to run into a

problem my array is already an address

so I don't need to use the address of

Operator Let Me demonstrate

I will display see out free

pizzas when accessing my array free

pizzas it's already a memory address if

I display the value contained within my

pointer to my free

pizzas it's going to be a memory address

then if I was to use the dfference

operator

that would give me the first element

within that array Pizza one so those are

Pointers it's a variable that stores a

memory address of another variable

sometimes it's easier to work with an

address instead of carrying five free

pizzas with me and going house to house

giving it away I'll just tell people

where the free pizza is so those are

Pointers your assignment is to post a

pointer in the comment section down

below and well yeah that's an

introduction to pointers in C++

hey what's up everybody so let's talk

about null pointers but first we'll need

to know what a null value is a null

value is a special value that means that

something has no value when a pointer is

holding a null value that means that

pointer is not pointing to anything

that's what we would call a null pointer

there is a keyword that represents that

null PTR PTR meaning pointer it's a

keyword that represents a null pointer

literal one of the reasons that we use

null pointer is that they're helpful

when determining if an address was

successfully assigned to a pointer if we

create a pointer but don't assign it a

value we don't know where it's pointing

to it would be good practice that that

pointer doesn't Point anywhere so let's

create a null pointer I'll create a

pointer of the int data type we use the

D reference operator pointer if I'm not

going to assign this pointer and address

right away it would be good practice to

assign this pointer null PTR null

pointer

later on in your program if you need to

assign an address let's say int x = 1 23

I would just take my pointer set this

equal

to the address of my variable if you

dfference a null pointer it can lead to

undefined Behavior or if you dreference

a pointer that's not assigned a value

well that can lead to undefined Behavior

too what some programmers do is that

they'll check to see if their pointer is

a pointer before continuing kind of like

a system of checks and balances we

assigned our pointer the address of X I

would like to check to see if my pointer

contains a valid address before

dereferencing it so we could say

pointer equals null pointer was my

pointer assigned an address or is it

still a null

pointer if my pointer is still a null

pointer that means we did not

successfully assign an address to my

pointer there may be situations such as

when working with dynamic memory where

you attempt to assign an address to your

pointer and it fails this would be a

good way to check to see if that failed

or not if your pointer Still Remains a n

pointer so let's say address was not

assigned

else standard

output address was assigned

so let's run this currently our pointer

is pointing to the address of

X address was assigned now if for some

reason we did not assign an address I'll

turn this line into a comment to

represent that well our pointer is still

going to be a null

pointer address was not assigned if your

pointer is still a null pointer it's not

safe to dereference that pointer if I

need access to the value that's at that

pointer it would be safe to do so within

this else

statement standard

output the reference

operator

pointer so my pointer contains the

number 1 123 if I were to dreference

this null pointer that would lead to

undefined Behavior I have no idea what's

going to

happen don't try this at home

kids what the

a null pointer is a keyword that

represents a null pointer literal when

declaring a pointer it's good practice

that our pointer is pointing to a valid

address or this null pointer keyword

because otherwise we don't know where

it's pointing originally they're helpful

when determining if an address was

successfully assigned to a pointer when

using pointers be careful that your code

isn't dereferencing a null pointer or

pointing to any free memory that we're

not using cuz that can lead to undefined

Behavior

so yeah everybody those are n pointers

in

C++ hey guys in this topic we're going

to create a game of tic taac toe we'll

be working with random numbers you may

or may not need to include this header

file

include C time we'll add some function

declarations then some definitions void

draw board there will be one parameter a

pointer tun array named spaces spaces

will be a one-dimensional array that

will keep track of all the markers like

what spots are taken what spots are

occupied Player

move the parameters will be a pointer to

spaces and Char

player computer

move a pointer to

spaces char

computer check

winner a pointer to spaces Char player

and Char

computer then

lastly check tie and all we need is a

pointer to our array spaces oh uh check

winner and check tie will both return a

Boolean

value okay let's add some fun

declarations so after the main function

let's paste

these we do need to return some value

for check winner and check TI because

there is a return type just for now as a

placeholder I'm going to return

zero but we'll change that later let's

head to the main function and declare

everything that we'll need a character

array named space

spes the size will be nine nine

spaces we'll have nine elements each

contains an empty

space one two three four five six seven

eight nine

good Char player pick a character that

you'd like to be you could do X or

something something

else Char

computer pick a character for the

computer let's begin with

o Boolean running I'll set this equal to

True when we begin our game we will

immediately invoke the draw board

function then pass in our array so

remember when we pass an array to a

function it decays into a pointer so we

don't need to create a pointer for this

array within the drawboard function we

will display a

grid so let's write something like this

standard output I'll add five spaces 1

two 3 4 five then a vertical bar five

spaces again 1 2 3 4 5 vertical bar 1 2

3 4 five then a new

line okay let's copy this

line right in the middle I'm going to

add one of the elements of our array

spaces so right about

there spaces at index

zero I'm going to copy this section of

code right in the middle between the two

vertical bars I'll paste what we copied

spaces at index

one then again right in the middle

paste what you have spaces at index

2 this time we'll create a horizontal

bar let's copy this we'll replace the

spaces with

underscores so right about

there okay let's see what we

have okay yeah something like this we'll

have a player or the computer right in

the

center so let's copy this line on top

paste it underneath copy this line that

displays elements of our

array paste it underneath but change the

element to numbers 3

4 five and we'll copy this

line paste it

underneath let's double check to see

what we

have okay we're getting somewhere let's

copy this line

paste

it copy one of these lines where we

display the elements of the

array paste it

underneath so we are missing elements

six 7

8 let's copy one of these empty

lines paste it

underneath then before and after we

display this grid I'll just display a

new line standard

output new

line and let's do that

after okay let's see what we

have yeah not too bad there's our grid

of nine

spaces okay that is the draw board

function we can close out of this we're

done with that when we invoke the draw a

board function we will pass in our array

which decays to a pointer and then

prints our board let's add a while loop

after the draw board function while our

condition is running running is set to

True

initially when we exit out of the game

we'll set running to be false the first

thing that we'll do is invoke the player

move function Player move but we need to

pass in our array spaces as well as a

player player then let's fill in the

player move

function okay player move move I'll

create a local variable named number the

user will enter in a number between 1

and 9 depending on what space they'd

like to occupy with their marker I'll

create a do while loop do while the

condition will be not number is greater

than

zero or not number is less than 8 the

user can only enter in a number between

0 and 8 those numbers correspond to the

elements of our array elements with

indices 0 through 8 within the do while

loop we'll ask for some user input

standard

output enter a

spot to place a

marker 1 through n whatever the user

types in we'll just subtract one because

the user doesn't know that arrays start

with zero supposedly

standard

input

number so the user will enter in a

number between 1 and N then we will

decrement the number by one because the

array starts with

zero if spaces at index of number

whatever the user types in is equal to

an empty space if that space isn't

occupied We'll add that marker to that

spot

spaces at index of number

equals the players marker then we like

to break out of this while loop so after

the player moves let's draw the board

again to reflect any

changes okay enter a spot to place a

marker how about one yeah and there's

our marker let's try it

again how about nine yep and we are in

the last spot the bottom right Corner

let's enter in a number that's outside

of this range like 100 enter a spot to

place a marker

uh1 okay so we're limited to the numbers

1 through n even if I were to type zero

we still can't uh so let's try something

in the middle that would be 1 two 3 four

five yeah and there's our marker I'm

just going to add a colon then a space

okay and that is the player move

function we can close out of this

function

let's work on the computer move function

next within the while loop let's invoke

that function pass in our spaces array

as well as whatever character the

computer is then we will draw the board

again right after just to update it

within the computer move function we'll

create a local variable named

number we'll need a seed to generate a

random number s

Rand within the parenthesis invoke the

time function pass in zero or

null and we should be able to generate

some random

numbers so I'm going to create a while

loop while the condition will be true I

would like to generate a random number

between 0 through 8 we'll take number

set this equal to Rand function modulus

9 number will be random between 0 and 8

technically if we pick a spot number

that is occupied already we'll need to

reroll a random

number if

spaces at index of number is equal to an

empty space we'll take spaces at index

of number set this equal to the

computer's

marker then break out of this while loop

Let's test this

function after we pick a spot the

computer will pick a spot too yep so the

computer picked a spot right in the

middle let's right one more time I'll

pick the spot in the middle again so

that would be five and our computer

picked spot number two cool let's close

out of the computer move

function after the player moves then we

draw the board again we will check a

winner I'll use an if statement within

the condition of the if statement we

will invoke the check winner function

the check winner function returns a

Boolean value so that's why we're

placing it within the if statement but

we need to pass in a couple ARG

are spaces the player and the

computer if there's a winner if this

evaluates to be true we will set running

equal to false and we will break let's

add this if statement to after the

computer moves

too okay let's fill in the check winner

function so write down

here we'll need to check all of the

different win conditions there's several

normally I would use a switch but it's

going to get very complicated especially

for beginners I think just to make this

easier we'll use a bunch of if and else

if

statements within the first condition of

the if statement we'll check to see if

the first row all has matching

characters so we can do that by saying

spaces at index of

zero is equal to spaces at index of

one and

spaces at index of one is equal to

spaces at index of two if all three

characters in the first row are the same

that means that somebody won I'm going

to use the tary operator here we have to

determine who won the player or the

computer let's check to see if the first

index spaces at index zero is equal to

the player's marker tary operator like

we're asking a question if the player

occup

the first row then we'll print standard

output

you

win otherwise standard

output you

lose and I'm just going to add a new

line here and

here okay there's one more thing we have

to do with this condition and I'll

explain that so let's run

this oh I'll pick spot number

nine you lose the reason that we lost is

that we're checking to see if the first

row all has the same characters they're

technically all empty spaces so our

program thinks that somebody won because

all of these characters match there are

three empty spaces I'm going to amend

this if statement we'll want to ensure

that none of the spaces are empty and

really we only need to check the first

space I'll make this amendment spaces at

index of zero

does not equal an empty

space and all these other conditions if

you'd like to keep this more organized

you can always surround some of these

conditions with

parentheses I think it's more legible

that

way let's try that again just to be sure

that it's working I'll pick something in

the

middle okay yeah so the computer doesn't

win automatically if there's three empty

spaces in the first row okay so that is

the first win condition let's copy this

condition I'll add else if now we'll

check the second row if spaces at index

3 is not equal to an empty space and

spaces at index 3 is equal to spaces at

index 4 and spaces at index 4 is equal

to spaces at index 5 then does spaces at

index 3 equal to player okay so that is

row two let's copy and paste that else

if statement then we'll need to check

the last row SPAC is at index 6 6 is 6

equal to 7 and is 7 equal to 8 so these

conditions will check all of the rows

then we'll need columns let's copy one

of these L if statements paste it so we

have 0

0 is 0 equal to 3 and is

three equal to 6

okay now time for the second

column spaces at index

one one right here as

well is 1 equal to 4 and is 4 equal to

7 copy this again paste

it then we have the third

column 2 2

is 2 equal to

5 and is 5 equal to

8 okay now the

diagonals spaces at zero

0 is 0 equal to

4 and is four equal to

8 then the last diagonal

spaces at index 2

2 is 2 equal to

4 and is four equal to

6 if there's no win

conditions we'll have an else statement

we will return false then all we have to

do at the end of this function is to

return true somebody won okay so let's

test

this I'll try and win with the first row

one two three you win this time I'm

going to try and

lose

one

2

4 7 whoops Seven's taken uh eight there

we go you lose we can close out of the

check winner function we know that it's

working then we just need to check to

see if there's a tie if there's no more

spaces available within the the main

function after our if statements we'll

add else

if we'll invoke the check tie

function pass in our spaces check Tai

returns a Boolean value if it's

true we will set running to be false

then

break then add that after the computer

move section too so right

here then let's fill in this function

within the check tie function we'll

iterate over the elements of our array

spaces we'll use a for Loop for in I

equals z we'll continue this as long as

I is less than 9 because there's a total

size of nine

spaces increment I by

One if spaces at index of I is equal to

an empty space that means we can

continue return false there's still

empty spaces if we iterate over our

array and there's no empty spaces well

then we'll display standard

output it's a

tie I'll add a new

line then we will return true and we can

get rid of

that okay so let's close out of this

check tie

function then after we exit our game

outside of this while loop let's display

a message standard

output thanks for

playing all right and that's everything

let's run this I'm going to try and get

a tie this

time

one

2

6

7 8 it's a tie thanks for playing all

right everybody that is a game of

tic-tac-toe for beginners if you would

like a copy of this code I'll post this

in the comments section down below and

well yeah that's a game of tic-tac-toe

using

C++ hey everybody we finally made it to

dynamic memory dynamic memory is memory

that is allocated after the program is

already compiled and running to allocate

dynamic memory we use this new keyword

it's an operator it allows us to

allocate memory in the Heap rather than

the stack it's useful when we don't know

how much memory we'll need it makes our

programs more flexible especially when

accepting user input because we have no

idea what the user is going to type in

here's an example we'll start with a

basic integer variable but we'll

allocate memory in the Heap rather than

the stack by using that new keyword I'll

create a pointer

int D reference operator P num now it's

good practice when when you declare a

pointer but don't assign it right away

to give it a value of null meaning no

value to allocate memory in the Heap

rather than the stack I'll take my

pointer set this equal to use the new

operator then a data type I'll use up

enough space in the Heap for one integer

the new operator will return an address

we're storing that address within P num

because it's a pointer it's pointing to

a memory location where we're going to

store an integer later on in your

program whenever you would like to store

a value we can use the dfference

operator our pointer then assign some

value like 21 I don't know just for fun

I'm going to display the address that's

stored within the

pointer

address P num then I'll add a new

line as well as the

value value the reference operator P num

our pointer is storing this address and

at this address in the Heap that address

contains this value 21 now it's very

good practice if not expected whenever

you use the new operator you'll also

want to use the delete operator when

you're no longer using that memory space

So at the end of this program or earlier

if you choose we will delete our pointer

delete P num we're freeing up the memory

at this address if you don't you may

cause a memory leak and it's best to

avoid that whenever you use the new

operator you probably should be using

the delete operator some place within

your program here's another example

we're going to dynamically create an

array let's create an array of grades

Char then we'll need a pointer the

reference operator P

grades set this equal to null if we're

not going to assign this pointer right

away then to dynamically create an array

we will we'll take our pointer set the

equal to new the data type Char if this

is an array we add a set of straight

brackets within the straight brackets we

will list a size if I have five grades

to enter in I would type in five but if

we already know the size of the array

before we even run the program we might

as well do that normally like create a

normal array there's no point to

allocating memory dynamically we would

want to do that when we don't know what

the size is going to be so I propose we

ask for some user input let's say in

size we'll create a prompt standard

output how many grades to enter

in standard input size will dynamically

allocate enough memory in the Heap

depending on how many grades the user

has to enter in I'll just create a for

Loop so that we will ask the user to

enter in some grades in I equal 0 I will

continue this as long as I is less than

size increment I by

1 standard

output enter grade

number I + one because I will be zero to

begin

with and I'm just going to add colon

space

afterwards standard

input P Cades that's our pointer now we

we can either add plus I or use those

straight brackets at index of I either

way let's display all of the

grades in I equals z i is less than size

i++ standard

output P grades at index of I I'll

separate each with the space and

remember if we no longer need this array

we should delete it to prevent a memory

leak if we have to delete an array we'll

add a set of straight brackets after

delete then our

pointer PG

grades and let's try

it how many grades to enter in so we

don't know what the user is going to

type let's say six grades enter grade

one a b c d f a and here are the grades

so that's why dynamic memory is useful

it's memory that is allocated after the

program is already compiled and running

we use the new operator to allocate

memory in the Heap rather than the stack

it's useful when we don't know how much

memory we will need it makes our

programs more flexible especially when

accepting user input so that is an

introduction to dynamic memory we'll

have more practice with this in the

future so don't worry if you would like

a copy of the code that we worked on

I'll post that in the comments section

down below and well yeah that's an

introduction to dynamic memory in

C++ hey guys I got to explain recursion

recursion is a programming technique

where a function invokes itself from

within we break a complex concept into

repeatable single steps many problems we

can approach iteratively or recursively

some of the advantages of recursion

include less codite and typically it's

cleaner it's also useful for sorting and

searching algorithms however some of the

disadvantages of recursion is that it

uses more memory and slower there's a

trade-off it's up to you if you'd rather

use an iterative approach or a recursive

approach here's an example we'll break a

complex concept maybe such as walking

into repeatable single steps to

accomplish the task of walking we would

take a single step and then just repeat

that a bunch of times we'll do this

first iteratively then

recursively so let's create a function

to walk V

walk there will be one parameter a

number of steps let's define this walk

function we'll use an iterative approach

first to do that we can use a for Loop

we'll set in I equals z we'll continue

this as long as I is less than our steps

then increment I by One I will

display just you take a

step then I'll add a new

line so we will invoke this function

pass in how many steps we would like to

walk I would like to walk 100

steps and here we go we printed you take

a step 100 times this is an iterative

approach if we were to take a recursive

approach we would invoke this function

from within itself so I'm going to turn

this for Loop into an if statement

we'll need a base case when do we stop

if

steps is greater than zero we will

display you take a step then I'm going

to invoke the walk function from within

itself then I will pass in steps minus

one this would be a recursive approach

we're invoking the walk function from

within itself you'll end up in a

function within a function within a

function within a function so on and so

forth so when I run

this this would do the same thing but

we've done so recursively the advantages

with recursion is that the code tends to

be easier to write I find this if

statement a lot easier to understand

than that for Loop although they're both

pretty simple however with recursion it

uses more memory and it takes more

processing time in the case with our

walk function I would probably stick

with an iterative approach there's

really not much benefit in this case but

in the case of let's say a searching

algorithm or navigating a tree data

structure recursion would really help us

with that so let's say we don't have a

base case that's when we stop what if I

just call the walk function

forever well we end up in an infinite

Loop and we would encounter what's

called a stack overflow when you invoke

a function you add what's called a frame

to the stack when your stack is

overloaded you'll encounter a stack

Overflow so that's one problem with

recursion

so let's try a different example we'll

create a factorial function if you don't

remember factorial is a mathematics

concept where you take a number and you

multiply that number times the previous

number minus one times the previous

number minus one times the previous

number minus one until you reach one you

multiply all these numbers and you're

given a result I'm going to demonstrate

a function to do that both iteratively

then recursively let's begin with an

iterative approach we will return it

integer this function will be named

factorial we'll pass in an integer named

num I'll immediately display the output

standard output factorial then pass in

some number maybe

10 let's define this

function if I was to take an iterative

approach I would write something like

this in result this will be a local

variable I'll set this equal to one I'll

create a for

Loop in I equal

1 we'll continue this as long as I is

less than or equal to our number

increment I by One I will take our

result equals result times whatever I

currently is at the end of this program

we will return result factorial 10 that

would be 3,6

28,800 if I was taking a recursive

approach I would write something like

this we would need a base case when do

we

stop if num is greater than

one we will

return num times invoke factorial again

our number minus

one else we will simply return one this

would do the same thing but recursively

factorial 10 is

3,628

1800 those were two different approaches

to the same problem when we did this

recursively we have a function call

inside of a function call inside of a

function call inside of a function call

you get the idea personally I find a

recursive approach to be a lot easier to

read and understand although remember it

uses more memory and a slower when you

start to learn about sorting algorithms

that's when recursion is really going to

help you quite a lot it will simplify

the steps so that's recursion everybody

it's a programming technique where a

function invokes itself from within we

break a complex concept into repeatable

single steps whenever you see a function

invoking itself from within you'll know

that that's recursion hey if you would

like a copy of this code I'll post this

in the comment section down below and

well yeah that's recursion in

C++ hey everyone let's discuss function

template

a function template describes what a

function looks like they can be used to

generate as many overloaded functions as

needed each using different data types

how is this useful suppose we have a Max

function that will accept and return an

integer int Max the parameters will be

int X int

y will return I'll use the tary operator

here is X greater than

y if so return X if not return y this

function is compatible with integers as

arguments let's display standard output

Max then pass in two integers like one

and

two so this would return the number two

but what if I would like to use this

function with doubles such as

1.1 and 2.1

while we're truncating that decimal

portion we're returning two not 2.1 if I

want this function to be compatible with

doubles normally I would have to create

an overloaded function that accepts

doubles and returns a double replace int

with

double and I guess this would work

technically the value returned is 2.1

what about characters how about the

character

one and the character 2 technically we

could use the max version that accepts

integers because there's an Associated

asky value with each of these characters

but I would like an overloaded function

that accepts and returns characters Char

Char

Char so this would return the character

to this is a lot of work creating three

overloaded functions that each do the

same thing the only difference is that

they accept and return different data

types what if we could write one

function that will accept any data type

well that's what function templates are

to create a function template take your

function replace any data type with t

we're returning an integer let's instead

return T the data type of X will be T

same thing with Y using t as a common

naming convention I like to think of it

as thing like we're not sure what the

data type is we're returning a thing

that's just how I think of it however

our compiler doesn't know what T is

exactly we'll need to add a template

parameter declaration before this

function template definition we'll add a

declaration of what T is so type

template angle

brackets type name t and that's it this

function template will work with many

data types

characters

doubles

integers you name it so yeah just

replace the data type with t then be

sure to add a template parameter

declaration now here's a scenario what

if you need to mix and match the data

types I'll find what the max is between

the integer 1 and the double

2.1 well we have a problem no matching

function for call 2 max int double with

this function template it's only set up

to receive arguments of the same data

type now we're passing in two different

data types what we could do within our

template parameter declaration is add

another template name I'm going to add

type name U because U comes after T in

the alphabet then if you needed more you

could add V WX so on and so forth I'll

change one of these T's to a u this

function template is set up to receive

up to two different data types as

arguments but there's one more change we

need to

make so we don't have that error anymore

but the decimal portion of of our double

is truncated it's returning two that's

because we're still returning T and T we

set to be an integer in this case do we

set the return type to be t or U

actually better yet we can set this to

Auto using the auto keyword the compiler

will deduce what the return type should

be this should return

2.1 all right everybody that is a

function template it describes what a

function looks like they can be used to

generate as many overloaded functions as

needed each using different data types I

like to think of it like a cookie cutter

we're determining what the shape is but

the arguments the dough that we use for

our cookies can be different but the

cookies will end up having the same

shape one of the main benefits of using

function templates is that we only have

to write a function once and then it's

compatible with different data types so

you don't need multiple versions of the

same function we'll generate functions

using this template as needed so yeah

those are function templates everybody

your assignment if you choose to do so

is to write a function template in the

comment section down below and well yeah

those are function templates in

C++ well okay then everybody we got to

talk about structs a struct is a

structure that groups related variables

under one name think of an array an

array can store multiple values of the

same data type well a struct can store

multiple values of different data types

we we can store strings along with ins

doubles booleans Etc to create a struct

let's do so outside of the main function

type struct then we need an identifier

this is kind of like the data type

suppose we're going to group related

variables for

students I'll name this identifier

student within the structure of student

variables that we declare are known as

members I think each student should have

a name member this will be of the string

data type string name I'll declare this

but not yet assign it as well as a GPA

that could be of the double data

type then a Boolean variable if they're

currently enrolled or not

enrolled then be sure to end your struct

with a semicolon our struct student is

kind of like its own data type we can

use this data type to declare variables

I'll create a student variable of this

data type and that variable will have

these three different members a name a

GPA and a Boolean variable for being

enrolled much like with creating a

variable we type the data type student

and then some name some identifier let's

name the first student student one

student one will have its own name GPA

and enrolled status if I would like to

assign the name member of student one I

would type the name of the student

student one followed by dot members can

be accessed with a DOT also known as the

class member access operator I'll assign

the name member and set this equal to

SpongeBob I'll assign student 1's GPA

student 1. GPA I'll give SpongeBob a

solid 3.2 then I could set his enrolled

status student one.

enrolled I'll set this to be true then

we could access these members I'll

display them standard

output student 1. name

I'll add a new

line let's do the same thing with GPA

and enrolled student 1. GPA student 1.

enrolled this is what this looks like we

have a student variable the name member

is SpongeBob SpongeBob has a GPA of 3.2

when accessing Boolean variables one

corresponds with true zero corresponds

with false enrolled a set to true so

that would return one let's reuse the

struct to create a second

student I'll just copy what we have here

then paste

it we'll give the second student a

different identifier such as student

two student two will have a name member

of

Patrick a GPA of

2.1 and he will be enrolled that's set

to True let's display student 2's

members student 2.n name student 2. GPA

then student 2.

enrolled these first members correspond

with student one SpongeBob 3.2 one for

True the second set is for student 2

Patrick has a GPA of 2.1 and Patrick is

currently enrolled okay one last example

let's create student

three let's copy what we have paste

it student student 3 student 3. name

student 3. GPA student 3. en rolled

student 3's name will be

Squidward Squidward has a GPA of 1.5

let's set enrolled to be false then

display student 3's

members student 3. name student 3. GPA

student 3.

enrolled and here are student 3's

members Squidward 1.5 and zero that

means false now with members you can set

a default value all set enrolled to be

true then we don't need to explicitly

state

that underneath SpongeBob Patrick and

Squidward their enrolled member is all

set to one with members you can set a

default value so yeah those are strs

it's a structure that groups related

variables under one name strs can

contain many different data types

variables in a struct are known as

members and members can be accessed with

a DOT the class member AIS operator so

those are strs your assignment is to

post a struct in the comment section

down below and well yeah those are strs

in

C++ hey everybody in this topic I'm

going to show you how we can pass a

struct to a function in C++ suppose we

have a struct the identifier of the

struct will be

cars then we'll create some members

related to cars how about a model

standard string model a year in year

then a color standard string

color then let's go ahead and create two

car structs how about car car

one car car

2 then we'll assign the

members car one. model pick a model of a

card that you

like then a year

and a

color let's do the same thing with Car

2 car 2. model car 2. year car 2.c color

let's pick some different

data that'll work suppose we have a

function to display the members of a

car void

how about print car we're printing the

members we'll need some

parameters the data type of what we're

passing in are car structs so we'll list

that as the data type then some nickname

for the argument that we receive how

about just car then I will display the

members standard output

car. model should probably add a new

line

too then do the same thing with year and

color car doe car. color Let's test this

by printing car one print car 1 we will

pass the name of a struct as an

argument uh then I think we're just

missing a function declaration so if

you're missing that be sure to add that

there now let's run

this okay here's our car Mustang 2023

and the color is red now with structs

they're passed by value rather than

passed by reference if we pass a struct

as an argument what we're doing is

creating a copy of the original struct

to demonstrate that let's display the

address of car1 before and within the

function standard

output address of operator car one I'll

add a new

line then let's do that within the

function

too the parameter name is car not car

one there so let's try

that so these addresses are different

when we pass the struct to a function

the function will create a copy of it

it's pass by value we're displaying the

members of the copy rather than the

original if you need to work with the

original struct you can use the address

of operator we're passing a reference to

the original car struct then be sure to

change that within the function

declaration as well so let's take a look

at the addresses now

yeah these addresses are the

same car 2 is feeling pretty lonely so

let's print Car 2 as well print car pass

in Car 2 as an argument to this

function so we should have car one and

Car 2 this time let's change one of the

members within a

function let's create a function to

paint car painted a different color

paint car there will be two

arguments an address to a

car as well as a color which will be of

the string data

type be sure to add a function

declaration if you're missing

it then within this function we will

take our car. color equals the new color

that we

receive now before we print our cars

let's paint them a different

color paint car we have two arguments

this time a car struct and a new color

let's paint our Mustang

silver then let's paint car2 maybe

gold then let's display

this okay our Mustang is now silver and

our Corvette is now gold so if we didn't

use the address of operator When

painting our car let me show you what

happens our cars are still the original

colors red and blue what we did within

this function is that we created a copy

of our car struct and changed the color

of the copies rather than the originals

so if you need to make any changes to

the original you would want to use the

address of operator so that's how to

pass structs to functions you can pass

by value which can be expensive or you

can pass by reference your assignment if

you choose to do so is to post a

function that accepts a struct as an

argument and that's how to pass structs

to functions in

C++ hey everybody we got to talk about

enums enums also means enumerations it's

a userdefined data type that consists of

paired named integer constants they're

great if you have a set of potential

options here's an example suppose we

have a day of the week standard string

today then pick a day I'll pick Sunday

normally you can't use strings within

switches but we can use enums which are

kind of similar let me explain so I'm

going to create a switch we will examine

today normally we can't do this because

it's a string we'll examine today

against many matching cases case Sunday

and I'll speed up the footage

okay here's my switch depending on what

day of the week it is we'll display a

custom message it is either Sunday

through Saturday one of these days so

normally we can't use strings within

switches this is what happens when we

attempt

that error switch quantity not an

integer something similar that we can

use are enums they're paired named

integer constants we have a name and an

Associated value they're interchangeable

at the top of my program I will declare

Eno

then a name for the set of enumerations

let's say day for day of the week we

have Sunday

Monday

Tuesday and you know the

rest you can associate a value with each

of these names Sunday equals z Monday

equals 1 then we'll just continue on

with with the rest of

these I'm going to group these together

like

that okay we have our enum setup this

identifier is kind of like the new data

type we're not working with strings

anymore we're working with days these

are a set of potential options each

option is a pair of a name and some

Associated value you can really pick any

value I went with the numbers 0 through

6 to represent the day of the week I'm

going to set today to Sunday this name

we can now use this within a switch

there's an Associated integer value but

we'll change the cases from strings to

that enum data

type and this would

work it is Sunday within the cases you

could use the associated values as well

I'm going to change today to be

Friday case Zero is Sunday Monday is 1 2

3 4 5

6 it is Friday so that also works but I

don't think it's as readable another

cool thing with enums is that enom

variables take only one value of the set

if I try and make up some value like P

Pizza day well we can't do

that pizza day was not declared in the

scope here's a few other enum examples

you could create a set of enums for

flavors vanilla chocolate strawberry

mint an important note is that if you're

working with enums and you don't assign

an integer value to each of these names

you'll implicitly assign zero to the

first name then one 2 three kind of like

what I did up here but we explicitly

assigned those values we have six colors

or maybe planets I have a set of enums

of the nine planets in our solar system

the associated integer is the size of

each planet in kilometers so yeah those

are enums they're a userdefined data

type that consists of paired named

integer constants they're great if you

have a set of potential options your

assignment is to post a set of enums in

the comment section down below and well

yeah those are enums in C++

hey everybody so we have finally made it

to object-oriented programming an object

think of it as a collection of

attributes and methods attributes are

characteristics of an object methods are

functions that an object can perform

objects can be used to mimic real world

items so look around you right now next

to me I have a phone a book and a dog

think of attributes as characteristics

what kinds of characteristics would a

phone have maybe a version number a

charge a service provider objects can

also contain methods what kinds of

actions can a phone perform they can

make calls receive calls play games now

with a book some of the attributes of a

book could be maybe an author number of

pages let's see what kinds of methods

can a book perform really not much you

can open a book and you can close it so

those are just a few okay last lastly

how about a dog object some of the

attributes of a dog could be a name an

age maybe a breed of dog then what kinds

of actions can dogs perform they can eat

they can bark they can sleep maybe play

fetch so I think you get the idea an

object is a collection of attributes and

methods Now to create an object we can

use a Class A class acts as a blueprint

to create objects let's create a class

to create human objects

I will type class human curly braces I'm

going to add a public access modifier

we'll learn about access modifiers

pretty soon I would like these

attributes and methods to be publicly

accessible let's start with the

attributes of humans what kinds of

characteristics can humans have how

about a

name this will be of the string data

type I'll declare this attribute but not

yet assign it

maybe an occupation like a job standard

string

occupation then maybe an age int age our

class human has these attributes humans

have a name an occupation and an age

that's good enough for this example now

let's cover methods a method is a

function that belongs to a class it's

something that an object can do an

action it can perform what sorts of

actions should our humans be able to

perform how about an e

method void

e I'll just display a message standard

output uh let's say this person is

eating humans can drink void

drink standard

output this person is

drinking okay one last example how about

sleep human sleep right void

sleep standard

output this person is

sleeping good enough oh then make sure

we add a semicolon to the end of the

class perfect okay so we now have a

human class we can use this class as a

blueprint to create human objects each

human object will have a name an

occupation and an age they can also eat

drink or sleep they have their own

functions which we call methods so to

create a human object we will type the

name of the

class

human then a unique

identifier how about human one that's

creative so human one is an object human

one has a name an occupation and an age

but we have not assigned these

attributes let's say human one's name

human one member AIS modifier which is a

DOT name equals

Rick then human

ones

occupation equals

scientist human ones age equals

70 let's verify that this worked by

printing out these

attributes standard

output human one.

name I'll add a new

line then let's repeat this for

occupation and age human one. occupation

human

1.age human one's name is Rick his

occupation is a scientist his age is 70

years

old so this part is kind of similar to

strs however objects can also perform

actions they have methods Rick can eat

drink and

sleep so to invoke those methods I would

type the name of my object human one and

let's have human one

eat so human one. eat add a set of

parentheses to invoke this

method okay this person is eating let's

also test drink and

sleep human one.

drink human one.

sleep okay this person is eating this

person is drinking this person is

sleeping and that is our human human one

for more practice let's create a second

human human human

2 I'm going to copy these lines

let's change human one to human

2 human 2's name will be Morty

occupation will be student age what

about 15 I'm going to display the

attributes of human 2 this time then

I'll have human 2 invoke its methods eat

drink then

sleep okay human 2's name is Morty their

occupation is a student Morty is 15

years old then Mor Mor can perform these

actions eat drink and sleep now you can

assign some default attributes so let's

say that all humans we create will be

named Rick it's kind of like we're

cloning

him his occupation will be

scientist age will be

70 I'm not going to assign these

attributes what I did is that I added

some default

attributes so we have human one and

human 2

I'll display the attributes of human one

first then human 2 human

1name occupation

age then we have human 2's attributes as

well so remember I am not assigning

these attributes within the main

function we have two humans they're both

named Rick they're both scientists and

they're both age 70 okay now here's one

last example to really get the hang of

objects let's create a different class

this time how about cars Class

Car let's add a public access modifier

then what kinds of attributes would cars

have perhaps a

make standard string

make a model standard string

model a year that would be an INT then

maybe a color standard string

color you can add some default

attributes but I'll just leave those

empty for now you can add some methods

what kinds of actions can cars take I

guess you can accelerate void

accelerate standard output uh what can

we

print you step on the

gas then maybe break void

break standard output

you step on the

brakes then be sure to add a semicolon

to the end of your class because I

always forget to do that okay we now

have a car class it acts as a blueprint

to create car objects to create an

object we would type the name of the

Class Car in this example then a unique

identifier for the object let's say car

one then we can assign some of the

attributes of this car object car 1.

make maybe

Ford car

one.

model equals Mustang I like

Mustangs car 1. year equals

2023 then a color car 1. color maybe

silver okay then just to test these

let's print these

attributes standard output car one. make

I'll add a new

line let's copy this line paste it three

times then we'll display the model year

then

color okay our car object is a Ford

Mustang the year is 2023 the color is

silver not only does our car have

attributes but it has methods actions it

can perform as well our car can

accelerate and it can break Let's test

that car

1.

accelerate car 1.

break okay you step on the gas you step

on the brakes then if I need a second

car object I can type car car 2 then I

can assign the attributes and I have

access to its methods so yeah that's an

object everybody it's a collection of

attributes and methods attributes are

characteristics of an object methods are

functions that an object can perform so

yeah those are objects everybody in the

next video we're going to cover

Constructors your assignment is to post

a class in the comment section down

below so yeah that's an introduction to

object-oriented programming in

C++ hey everybody welcome back so in

today's video we're going to discuss

Construction S A Constructor is a

special method within a class that is

automatically called when an object is

instantiated it's useful for assigning

values to attributes as arguments before

when we were assigning attributes to an

object we would say for example car

1. make equals Ford well with a

Constructor we can do that automatically

here's an example this time let's create

a student class

class

student I'll add a public access

modifier what attributes Should students

have how about a name standard string

name int age double GPA sounds good to

me then if I need to create a student

object I would type the name of the

class student a unique identifier for

this specific object let's say student

one

then to assign some of the attributes

right away I could use a Constructor we

do have a Constructor that is

automatically called behind the scenes

but we could explicitly set one up the

Constructor has the same name as the

class in this case student add a set of

parentheses add a set of curly braces

think of this as a function we can set

up parameters when we instantiate a

student object we will automatically

call this function the instructor then

pass arguments let's set up some

parameters we have standard string

name int AG double

GPA then when I instantiate a student

object I will add a set of parentheses

after the object name then pass in my

arguments let me just zoom in real quick

okay in order to instantiate a student

object we need to pass in a name an age

and a GPA so for the first student

student one's name will be SpongeBob his

age will be I don't know how old

SpongeBob is let's say he's 25

SpongeBob's GPA will be a solid

3.2 when we instantiate our student

object we will pass these values as

arguments to the Constructor now to

assign these attributes with these

parameters we first need to select these

attributes in this example I gave them

the same same name just to remove

ambiguity if I'm referring to these

attributes I will type this then an

arrow name equals the name of the

parameter

name this name equals my name

parameter this Arrow age equals my age

parameter this Arrow GPA equals my GPA

so now let's test this I will display

student 1's name age and

GPA standard

output student

one. name add a new

line then we have

age then

GPA okay we got SpongeBob he's 25 years

old his GPA is 3.2 so you can see that

we don't need to necessarily add these

values to these attributes manually you

can do that automatically with a

Constructor so another way in which you

may see this Constructor set up is with

the parameter names being different from

the attribute names perhaps instead of

name age and GPA let's say X Y then Z if

the attribute names are different from

the parameter names you don't need the

this

keyword you could say name equals x age

equals y GPA equals z and this would

work

too if you prefer this way of doing

things you can do that uh just my own

personal preference I like to use the

this keyword and then keep my parameters

the same but that's just me you do you

let's create a couple more students and

it's kind of nice because we can reuse

this Constructor let's create student 2

student student

2 student two will be Patrick I don't

know how old Patrick is let's say

Patrick is

40 uh Patrick's GPA will be

1.5 okay to test this let's display

student 2's name age and

GPA okay we got Patrick he's 40 years

old GPA is 1.5 one last student student

student 3 student 3 will be Sandy Sandy

is uh how about 21 years old and sy's

GPA is a perfect

4.0 okay now we'll display student 3's

name age

GPA okay we got Sandy her age is 21 GPA

is 4 well 4.0 let's do one last example

just to reinforce our understanding of

Constructors let's create an entirely

new class let's go back to our car class

I'm going to get rid of all this so we

need a class class

car set of curly braces add a semicolon

to the end I will add a public access

modifier in the last topic we decided

that cars had four attributes a make

standard string

make a model standard string

model in

year standard string color

now we'll create a Constructor for our

car objects it has the same name as the

class name car set of parenthesis set of

curly braces we can set up some

parameters we have make model year and

color I think I'm just going to copy

this to save time you can rename these

if you

want but I like to keep them the

same then I will assign this Arrow make

equals

make this Arrow model equals

model

this Arrow year equals

year this Arrow color equals color when

we create a car object we'll need to

pass in these

arguments I will create car car one add

a set of parenthesis pass in my

arguments a make model year and color

I'll create a

Chevy

Corvette the year will be

2022 the color is

blue I'm going to display the attributes

standard output car 1. make I'll add a

new line then I will display the model

year then color

color

model year

color car one is a Chevy Corvette the

year is 2022 the color is blue let's

create a second car car car

2 Car 2 will be a

Ford

Mustang the year will be 2023 the color

will be read I will display c2's

attributes we have a Ford Mustang the

year is 2023 the color is red so yeah

that's a Constructor everybody a

Constructor is a special method that is

automatically called when an object is

instantiated it's useful for assigning

values to attributes as arguments when

you create an object from the class add

a set of parentheses then add your

arguments within the construct you can

assign those arguments to the attributes

of that class in the next topic we'll

cover overloaded Constructors if you're

looking for some additional practice in

the comment section down below post a

class that contains a Constructor and

well yeah those are Constructors in

C++ overloaded Constructors are when we

have multiple Constructors with the same

name but different parameters they allow

for a varying number of arguments ments

when instantiating an object here's an

example we'll create Pizza objects from

a pizza class let's type Class Pizza add

a set of curly braces a semicolon to the

end will make our members publicly

accessible so pizzas they can have a

variable number of toppings right you

can have no toppings one topping two

toppings three toppings suppose we have

just one topping to begin with topping

one and that will be of the string data

type standard string topping

one then I will create a pizza

Constructor it has the same name as the

class name Pizza parentheses curly

braces we'll set up some

parameters standard string topping one

in order to construct a pizza we have to

pass in one topping so let's do that we

have pizza pizza one and I will pass in

one argument for a topping I feel like

pepperoni then we'll just need to assign

this argument to this

attribute this Arrow topping one equals

topping one the name of this parameter

then to test this let's display topping

one standard

output Pizza one do topping

one okay we have pizza 1 that contains

pepperoni now what if if you would like

a pizza that has two toppings suppose we

have pizza 2 Pizza Pizza 2 this time I'm

going to attempt to pass in two

arguments how about

mushrooms and

peppers well when I run this

program we're going to have an error

error no matching function for call to

Pizza with two

arguments we can create an additional

Constructor that accepts different

arguments let's copy what we have and

paste it this Constructor will take two

string arguments topping one and Topping

two so we have two toppings this time

and I should probably create another

attribute for a second topping standard

string topping

two this topping two equals topping

two so now with pizza 2 let's display

topping one as well as topping

two now Pizza 2 contains mushrooms and

peppers what if you would like a pizza

with no toppings like a plain cheese

pizza well we could set that up pizza

pizza

3 I'm going to attempt to add a set of

parentheses after Pizza 3 but pass in no

arguments but we have a warning our

compiler is saying we should get rid of

the

parentheses if we're passing in no

arguments we don't need that set of

parentheses but we still have an error

here no matching function call for pizza

with no

arguments if we're creating an object

and passing in no arguments we'll need a

matching Constructor so at the top I'll

create a a pizza Constructor with no

arguments and that should make that

error go

away so this should run and compile just

fine then yep no errors so yeah those

are overloaded Constructors you can have

multiple Constructors with the same name

as long as the parameters are different

we have three Constructors with the same

name we can create a pizza with no

toppings one topping or two toppings

overloaded Constructors allow for

multiple objects with a varying number

of attributes if you're looking for some

additional exercises post a class with

overloaded Constructors in the comment

section down below and well yeah those

are overloaded Constructors in

C++ hey everyone let's talk about

Getters and Setters Getters and Setters

are used within this concept of

abstraction where we hide any

unnecessary data from outside of a class

Getters are functions that make a

private attribute readable Setters are

functions that make a private attribute

writable here's an example I'm going to

create a stove object class

stove then I will instantiate a stove

object stove stove in previous topics

when we created attributes we would use

the public access specifier then write

any attributes in this example let's say

int

temperature I'll go ahead and set this

to zero right away since this attribute

temperature is public it's accessible

from outside of the class that means

that people can change it for example I

will take my stove object set the

temperature attribute to a really high

setting that doesn't exist like a

million this is

fine then I can display the temperature

standard

output the

temperature

setting

is stove.

temperature the temperature setting is 1

million I don't want people to mess with

my temperature attribute what I could do

instead is set these attributes to be

private we're following that rule of

abstraction we're hiding any un

necessary data from a user that they

don't need we no longer have access to

this temperature attribute from outside

of the class you can see we have some

red

underlines temperature is private within

this context this is a hidden attribute

from the outside world if I need access

to the value found within this

temperature I can write a getter it's a

function that will make an attribute

readable I'll add a public access

specifier then write a getter we're

returning an

integer I'll write get then the

attribute name

temperature all I'm going to do is

return our

temperature I can no longer update or

change the temperature it's readable but

not writable so I'm going to turn this

line into a

comment in place of accessing this

attribute directly I'm going to invoke

the get temperature

method stove. getet temperature add a

set of

parentheses now the current temperature

setting is set to zero adding a getter

will make an attribute readable if you

need a private attribute to also be

writable you can add a Setter void set

temperature this Arrow temperature

equals our temperature that we pass in

then we just need a parameter int

temperature in order for a user to

change the temperature they would need

to invoke the set temperature

method then they can pass in a new

temperature using this Setter they can

still set the temperature to whatever

they want like a million in the previous

example the temperature setting is set

to 1 million within a Setter we can add

some additional logic or checks before

we do set the temperature let's check to

see what the temperature

is if the temperature the user passes in

is less than

zero we will set this temperature to be

zero else

if the

temperature is greater than or equal to

10 suppose this is a knob with different

settings the numberers 0 through 10 this

temperature equals

10 in case they type in a million it'll

just max out at

10

else this temperature equals

temperature I could attempt to set the

temperature to a million but it would

just max out at 10 or we could try a

negative number like

-3 well now the temperature setting is

set to zero as if the stove was off or

anything in between maybe five something

right in the the

middle the temperature setting is five

so yeah that's kind of the purpose of

Getters and Setters they make a private

attribute either readable or writable or

both if you use both one additional step

you can take too is that if you have a

Constructor you can invoke the Setters

within a Constructor within my stove

class I have a Constructor if we were to

receive a

temperature we could set the temperature

right away so we already have this line

of code within our Setter so we don't

necessarily need this line again we

would instead invoke the

setter set temperature pass in our

temperature then if I was to instantiate

a stove object I would have to pass in a

temperature I'll set it to be

zero and this temperature setting is set

to zero so yeah those are Getters and

Setters everybody a getter makes a

private attribute readable a Setter

makes a private attribute writable

within the Getters and Setters you can

perform additional checks or logic which

is pretty nice if you're looking for

some additional practice post a class

that has a getter and Setter in the

comment section down below and well yeah

those are Getters and Setters in

C++ hey guys let's talk about

inheritance inheritance is when a class

can receive attributes and methods from

another class the receiving class is

known as a child class the class that's

being inherited from is known as the

parent class it's kind of like how

children will inherit their parents

genes and some of their physical traits

it's kind of the same concept a benefit

of inheritance is that it helps to reuse

similar code found within multiple

classes here's an example we will create

an animal class the animal class will be

the parent class class animal

I'll make these members publicly

accessible all animals will have a

Boolean attribute that we will name

alive if you're an animal you're alive

then let's add a method maybe an eat

method all animals should be able to

eat

void

eat we'll just print a generic message

standard

output this animal is is

eating I'm going to create two classes a

dog class and a cat class they will

inherit from the animal

class let's begin with dog class dog to

inherit from another class you would add

a colon then public the name of the

parent class dog will inherit from the

animal

class then out of curly braces semicolon

add at the end and we now have a dog

class now check this out if I create a

dog object it will have a Boolean

variable named alive as well as an eat

method so let's create a dog object dog

dog so I'm going to display that Boolean

variable dog.

alive if I display this

attribute this will give me one which

means

true this dog object also has an eat

method dog do eat add aide of

parenthesis to invoke

it this animal is

eating so even though there's nothing

within this dog class it's inheriting

everything from within the animal class

and we could add some additional

attributes and methods as well maybe

just a method this time I would like to

give my dog the ability to speak so

let's make this public

void maybe

bark standard

output the dog goes

woof my dog is alive and it can eat my

dog can also bark as well it has its own

attributes and methods too I would like

my dog to

bark okay my dog is alive that's set to

one the animal is eating the dog goes

woof so now let's create a cat

class class cat the cat class will

inherit from the animal

class I'll make its members publicly

accessible I will give cats a meow

function void

meow standard

output the cat goes meow

there okay now we can create a cat

object Cat Cat Let's print the alive

Boolean variable of my

cat cat. eat now I'm going to try and

use the bark method of a cat which we

don't have let's attempt to use that so

class cat has no member named bark

that's because that method is found

within the dog class and not the cat

class cats have a meow method I'm

instead going to use the meow

method are cats alive the animal is

eating the cat goes meow so that's kind

of how inheritance Works a class can

inherit attributes and methods from

another class it helps with code

reusability you know technically you

could add these attributes and methods

to each of these classes for

example I'll just add the Boolean

variable alive to each of these

classes as well as the eat method

you know this would work too but we're

repeating ourselves and with programming

we try not to repeat ourselves if we

don't have to especially because if we

have to make a change to the eat method

let's change eat to n Nom Nom well I

would have to go to each class and make

that change manually and that can be

inconvenient if I have hundreds of

different classes it would be a lot

easier if I just had to make that change

in one place so I'm going to revert all

those changes

if I need to make a change to one of

these methods I'm going to change e to

display n Nom

Nom well then I just have to make that

change in one place instead of for every

individual class let's try another

example we'll create a class named shape

this will be the parent

class we'll make the members publicly

accessible any class that inherits from

the shape class will have a double

attribute that we will name area for

surface area double volume in this

example we won't have any methods this

time just some attributes I'm going to

create class Cube cube is the child

class it will inherit from the parent

class shape so

colon public the name of the parent

shape even though there's nothing within

my Cube class my Cube class has an error

area and volume

attribute then let's make a sphere class

class

sphere there we go I'm going to add a

public access modifier all cubes will

have a double side property then with

spheres they will have Double Radius

then I'm going to add a Constructor for

both cubes and spheres let's begin with

Cube Cube

then

sphere in order to instantiate a cube

object I need to pass it aside as an

argument when I construct an

object double

side then for the sphere we need a

radius Double Radius I think what we'll

do is that when we construct a cube

object and a sphere object we'll

calculate the area and the volume based

on either the side that we pass in for a

cube or the radius for a sphere let's

begin with the cube first let's assign

the length of a side remember with a

cube the length the width and the height

are all the same this Arrow side equals

side to calculate the area we can use

this formula so this area

equals side * side * 6 because there's

six sides to a cube then if you need the

volume you could say this Arrow volume

equals side to the^ of three we could

just say side time side time side just

to keep it

simple now with the sphere it's a little

more complex first let's assign the

radius this Arrow radius equals

radius let's calculate the area of a

sphere this Arrow area equals to

calculate the area of a sphere that

would be 4 * Pi let's just say

3.14159 time radius

squared so radius time

radius then let's calculate the volume

this Arrow volume equals to calculate

the volume of a sphere the formula is 4

/ 3 * pi * radius cubed so that would be

4 / 3.0 make sure to divide by 3.0 and

not 3 because in this case we would be

using integer division we would like to

keep that decimal so

3.0 time Pi that's

3.14159 time radius cubed to keep it

simple we can say radius time radius

time

radius and there we

go okay so let's create a cube object to

begin with

Cube I'll name this this object just

Cube then in order to construct a cube

object we need to pass in the length of

a side let's say

10 so my Cube class inherits the area

and volume attribute from the shape

class within the Constructor of the cube

class we will calculate what the area

and the volume is going to

be and I will display that standard

output

area q

do area then I'll add

centimet then let's do the same thing

with

volume

volume cube. volume if the length of a

side is

10 the area is going to be 600 cm squar

the volume is 1,000 cm cubed now let's

try this with our sphere sphere I'll

name this object sphere then we will

pass in the radius let's say five I

would like to display the sphere's area

and the sphere's

volume the area would be 314 cm squared

the volume is 523 cm

cubed so yeah that's inheritance

everybody a class can inherit attributes

and methods from another class if you

have multiple classes and they share

similar attributes or methods you can

place them within a parent class and all

of those individual classes can inherit

from that one common class it helps with

code reusability and you don't have to

repeat yourself if you're looking for

some additional practice post a parent

class and a child class in the comment

section down below and well yeah that's

an introduction to inheritance in C++